Acetobacter aceti

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Acetobacter aceti
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Scientific classification
Domain:
Bacteria
Phylum:
Pseudomonadota
Class:
Alphaproteobacteria
Order:
Rhodospirillales
Family:
Acetobacteraceae
Genus:
Acetobacter
Species:
A. aceti
Binomial name
Acetobacter aceti
(Pasteur 1864) Beijerinck 1898

Acetobacter aceti, a Gram-negative bacterium that moves using its peritrichous flagella, was discovered when Louis Pasteur proved it to be the cause of conversion of ethanol to acetic acid in 1864. Its bacterial motility plays an important role in the formation of biofilms, intricate communities where A. aceti cells aggregate and collaborate, further enhancing their ability to metabolize ethanol and produce acetic acid. [1] Widely distributed in various environmental niches, this benign microorganism thrives in habitats abundant in fermentable sugars, such as flowers, fruits, honey, water, and soil, present wherever sugar fermentation occurs. [2] A. aceti grows best within temperatures ranging from 25 to 30 degrees Celsius, with an upper limit of 35 degrees Celsius, and in slightly acidic conditions with a pH between 5.5 to 6.3. [2] A. aceti has long been used in the fermentation industry efficiently producing acetic acid from alcohol as an obligate aerobe dependent on oxygen as the terminal electron acceptor. [3] The microorganism's ability to thrive in environments rich in fermentable sugars shows its potential as an organism for studying microbial metabolism and adaptation.

Besides its ecological role, A. aceti holds a significant economic value, particularly in vinegar production, where it catalyzes the conversion of ethanol in wine or cider into acetic acid. [1] The acetic acid it generates is used in the manufacturing of acetate rayon, plastics production, rubber production, and photographic chemicals. A. aceti, classified as an acidophile, able to survive in acidic environments, possesses an acidified cytoplasm which provides most proteins in its genome with acid stability, making it an interesting study which explains the mechanisms by which proteins acquire acid resistance. In addition to its industrial applications, A. aceti's unique metabolic capabilities have gained attention in biotech research. Studies have found that it has the potential to be a key player in the production of bio-based chemicals and renewable materials, using its enzymatic machinery for sustainable manufacturing processes. Acetobacter aceti is a multifaceted organism with ecological, industrial, and biotechnological significance, showing its pivotal role in metabolism and economic value. [2]

History

The history of Acetobacteraceti is intertwined with the history of vinegar production and microbial fermentation. The production of vinegar, which come from fermented fruits or grains, dates back thousands of years. Ancient civilizations have used vinegar for medicinal and cooking purposes. As time went on, people paid more and more attention to the process of fermentation, which converts sugars into alcohol and then into vinegar in the presence of oxygen. In the late 19th century, Martinus Beijerinck (Dutch microbiologist) isolated various bacteria involved in vinegar production, specifically the genus Acetobacter. [4] In the early 20th century, scientist Louis Pasteur's research identified the role of Acetobacter aceti in the conversion of alcohol to acetic acid. Today, A.aceti is recognized as a species within the genus Acetobacter, belonging to the family Acetobacteraceae in the class Alphaproteobacteria. [5] Research on A.aceti has expanded to explore their biotechnological applications beyond vinegar production including biofuel production, bioremediation, food fermentation, and synthesis of biopolymers. [6]

Genetics

Acetobacter Aceti belongs to the family Acetobacteraceae which is comprised of two genera termed Acetobacter and Gluconobacter. [7] Acetobacter oxidizes ethanol to acetic acid while Gluconobacter uses solely glucose for its metabolic processes. Many sequenced strains of A. aceti, including NBRC 14818 and JCM20276, have been shown to contain a genome consisting of one chromosome and four plasmid/phages. [4] [8] The A. aceti strain NBRC 14818 contains 3,596,270 base pairs in its chromosome. [4]

Growth

Oxidation is used to stimulate the growth of the A. aceti. Samples of the bacteria are placed in a few silicone tubes. These tubes are permeable to oxygen, after which they are left in a region warmer than the typical room temperature and cultured. Acetobacter aceti struggles to grow with a carbon source of glucose. However, is grows well on an ethanol medium. [9] Ethanol is a very important compound for the growth of A. aceti. The oxidation of ethanol leads to acetate which lowers the expression of TCA cycle genes. However, this changed once ethanol was added because acetate began to become consumed which led to a unregulation of the glyoxylate pathway upon ethanol oxidation. This means that ethanol is important as a carbon source for the upregulation of metabolic pathways. [10]

Metabolism

A. aceti is a unique microorganism because of its ability to survive in high concentrations of acetic acid. [11] This microbe utilizes a two-step oxidation of ethanol to acetate. Ethanol is oxidized by membrane-bound proteins called pyrroloquinoline quinone-dependent alcohol dehydrogenase (PQQ- dependent ADH) to produce acetyl aldehyde. These proteins reside within the periplasm. Acetyl aldehyde is then oxidized by the enzyme aldehyde dehydrogenase [12] to produce acetate. Acetate is then converted into acetyl-CoA by either the enzyme acetyl-CoA synthetase or mediated by phosphotransacetylase and acetate kinase. Three acetyl-CoA are then synthesized into citrate which are used in the the TCA cycle (tricarboxylic acid cycle). However, the efflux pump drives acetate out of the microbe, increasing growth medium vinegar concentration. A. aceti strains can tolerate acetic acid concentrations of 5 to 20 percent outside of the cell. [13]

Since, A. aceti utilizes the TCA cycle (tricarboxylic acid cycle) two molecules of carbon dioxide are produced during the oxidation of isocitrate to 2-Oxoglutarate to succinyl-CoA. [14]

As A. aceti accumulates acetate in the presence of ethanol because of incomplete oxidation, [15] catalyzed by the membrane-bound protein pyrroloquinoline quinone-dependent alcohol dehydrogenase (PQQ-dependent ADH), acetate is also used as a carbon and energy source by the TCA cycle (tricarboxylic acid cycle) after ethanol is depleted. Furthermore, the oxidation of ethanol into acetate leads into the creation of adenosine triphosphate (ATP) because of oxidative phosphorylation. Notably, when ethanol is incompletely oxidized by A. aceti, it represses the TCA cycle in A. aceti and is used as an energy source and the TCA cycle then functions to synthesize cell materials. [16] After the acetic acid fermentation, oxygen becomes the final electron acceptor and becomes a part of the proton motive force that is needed for energy production through ATP synthase. [17]

Industrial use

Acetic acid production

A. aceti is used for the mass production of acetic acid, the main component in vinegar. During the fermentation process of vinegar production, it is used to act on wines and ciders resulting in vinegar with acetic acid. It can be converted by a silicone tube reactor, which aids the fermentation process with oxidation. A. aceti is widely used in industrial vinegar production due to its ability to produce high concentrations of acetic acid from ethanol while also having a high resistance to acetic acid. [18]

Diabetes

Diabetes is a significant health issue affecting millions of Americans, prompting researchers to find effective treatments and potential cures. A. aceti is emerging as a candidate due to its potential role in controlling diabetes. Probiotics have been identified as a therapeutic method for diabetes treatment with recent studies identifying chromium and zinc rich strains of A. aceti to enhance the hypoglycemic effects of the probiotic. An experiment was conducted in which researchers compared the efficacy of A. aceti to metformin, a common treatment for patients with type 2 diabetes. The result showed that A. aceti not only increased insulin secretion but also contributed to the repair of damaged pancreatic tissue, showing its potential as a valuable therapeutic method in diabetes treatment. [19]

Cellulose production

Cellulose is a carbohydrate, specifically a polysaccharide, which can be found in the cell walls of plants, algae, fungi, and some bacteria. Through its production of acetic acid and oxidation of ethanol, A.aceti plays a crucial role in synthesis of bacterial cellulose. Bacterial cellulose is unique from plant cellulose due to its highly pure and crystalline structure. This bacterial cellulose is valued for its high purity, strength, and unique properties. It is used for production of biofilms, medical dressings, and food products. [20] [21]

Biofilm formation

A. aceti is typically known as corrosive as it produces acetic acid which causes severe corrosion of copper and steel in many industrial settings. However, it has also been discovered that when in a solution with ethanol, a biofilm of A. aceti forms and can be used as a protective layer to prevent corrosion of carbon and steel. This is important because if A. aceti biofilms are used to reduce microbiologically induced corrosion, industrial profits will increase. [22]

Safety

A. aceti is not known to be a human pathogen and is generally regarded as safe to handle in industrial settings. Human skin does not provide the bacteria with the optimal conditions for it to grow, reducing the risk of infection or adverse effects from direct contact. The optimum growth of A. aceti is lower than the temperature found in the human body making it unlikely for it to inhabit both the human body and animals in general allowing it to be listed on the FDA's list of GRAS (generally recognized as safe) microorganisms.

While A. aceti poses minimal risk to humans, it may have implications for the environment, particularly in agriculture. Some evidence suggests that A. aceti can be harmful to plants and other flora potentially disrupting natural ecosystems. A. aceti's metabolic activity and production of acetic acid may influence soil pH and microbial communities, which can impact soil health and ecosystem dynamics. A. aceti has also been found to cause rotting of fruits such as apples and pears. So, while A. aceti is considered safe for human contact, its interactions with the environment warrant further research to understand its potential ecological impacts and inform sustainable management practices. [23] [24]

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Vinegar</span> Liquid consisting mainly of acetic acid and water

Vinegar is an aqueous solution of acetic acid and trace compounds that may include flavorings. Vinegar typically contains from 5% to 18% acetic acid by volume. Usually, the acetic acid is produced by a double fermentation, converting simple sugars to ethanol using yeast and ethanol to acetic acid using acetic acid bacteria. Many types of vinegar are made, depending on source materials. The product is now mainly used in the culinary arts as a flavorful, acidic cooking ingredient or in pickling. Various types are used as condiments or garnishes, including balsamic vinegar and malt vinegar.

Acetic acid bacteria (AAB) are a group of Gram-negative bacteria which oxidize sugars or ethanol and produce acetic acid during fermentation. The acetic acid bacteria consist of 10 genera in the family Acetobacteraceae. Several species of acetic acid bacteria are used in industry for production of certain foods and chemicals.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Mother of vinegar</span> Biofilm formed on fermenting alcoholic liquids

Mother of vinegar is a biofilm composed of a form of cellulose, yeast, and bacteria that sometimes develops on fermenting alcoholic liquids during the process that turns alcohol into acetic acid with the help of oxygen from the air and acetic acid bacteria (AAB). It is similar to the symbiotic culture of bacteria and yeast (SCOBY) mostly known from production of kombucha, but develops to a much lesser extent due to lesser availability of yeast, which is often no longer present in wine/cider at this stage, and a different population of bacteria. Mother of vinegar is often added to wine, cider, or other alcoholic liquids to produce vinegar at home, although only the bacteria is required, but historically has also been used in large scale production.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Acetate</span> Salt compound formed from acetic acid and a base

An acetate is a salt formed by the combination of acetic acid with a base. "Acetate" also describes the conjugate base or ion typically found in aqueous solution and written with the chemical formula C
2H
3O−
2. The neutral molecules formed by the combination of the acetate ion and a positive ion are also commonly called "acetates". The simplest of these is hydrogen acetate with corresponding salts, esters, and the polyatomic anion CH
3CO−
2, or CH
3COO−
.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Kombucha</span> Fermented tea beverage

Kombucha is a fermented, lightly effervescent, sweetened black tea drink. Sometimes the beverage is called kombucha tea to distinguish it from the culture of bacteria and yeast. Juice, spices, fruit or other flavorings are often added.

Acetobacter is a genus of acetic acid bacteria. Acetic acid bacteria are characterized by the ability to convert ethanol to acetic acid in the presence of oxygen. Of these, the genus Acetobacter is distinguished by the ability to oxidize lactate and acetate into carbon dioxide and water. Bacteria of the genus Acetobacter have been isolated from industrial vinegar fermentation processes and are frequently used as fermentation starter cultures.

Acidogenesis is the second stage in the four stages of anaerobic digestion:

Industrial fermentation is the intentional use of fermentation in manufacturing processes. In addition to the mass production of fermented foods and drinks, industrial fermentation has widespread applications in chemical industry. Commodity chemicals, such as acetic acid, citric acid, and ethanol are made by fermentation. Moreover, nearly all commercially produced industrial enzymes, such as lipase, invertase and rennet, are made by fermentation with genetically modified microbes. In some cases, production of biomass itself is the objective, as is the case for single-cell proteins, baker's yeast, and starter cultures for lactic acid bacteria used in cheesemaking.

A wine fault is a sensory-associated (organoleptic) characteristic of a wine that is unpleasant, and may include elements of taste, smell, or appearance, elements that may arise from a "chemical or a microbial origin", where particular sensory experiences might arise from more than one wine fault. Wine faults may result from poor winemaking practices or storage conditions that lead to wine spoilage.

Acetogenesis is a process through which acetate is produced by prokaryote microorganisms either by the reduction of CO2 or by the reduction of organic acids, rather than by the oxidative breakdown of carbohydrates or ethanol, as with acetic acid bacteria.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Apple cider vinegar</span> Vinegar made from fermented apple juice

Apple cider vinegar, or cider vinegar, is a vinegar made from cider, and used in salad dressings, marinades, vinaigrettes, food preservatives, and chutneys. It is made by crushing apples, then squeezing out the juice. The apple juice is then fermented by yeast which converts the sugars in the juice to ethanol. In a second fermentation step, the ethanol is converted into acetic acid by acetic acid-forming bacteria, yielding cider vinegar. Acetic acid and malic acid combine to give this vinegar its sour taste.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Mixed acid fermentation</span> Biochemical conversion of six-carbon sugars into acids in bacteria

In biochemistry, mixed acid fermentation is the metabolic process by which a six-carbon sugar is converted into a complex and variable mixture of acids. It is an anaerobic (non-oxygen-requiring) fermentation reaction that is common in bacteria. It is characteristic for members of the Enterobacteriaceae, a large family of Gram-negative bacteria that includes E. coli.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Fermentation</span> Metabolic process producing energy in the absence of oxygen

Fermentation is a metabolic process that produces chemical changes in organic substances through the action of enzymes. In biochemistry, it is broadly defined as the extraction of energy from carbohydrates in the absence of oxygen. In food production, it may more broadly refer to any process in which the activity of microorganisms brings about a desirable change to a foodstuff or beverage. The science of fermentation is known as zymology.

Acidophiles or acidophilic organisms are those that thrive under highly acidic conditions. These organisms can be found in different branches of the tree of life, including Archaea, Bacteria, and Eukarya.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">SCOBY</span> Symbiotic culture of bacteria and yeast

Symbiotic culture of bacteria and yeast (SCOBY) is a culinary symbiotic fermentation culture (starter) consisting of lactic acid bacteria (LAB), acetic acid bacteria (AAB), and yeast which arises in the preparation of sour foods and beverages such as kombucha. Beer and wine also undergo fermentation with yeast, but the lactic acid bacteria and acetic acid bacteria components unique to SCOBY are usually viewed as a source of spoilage rather than a desired addition. Both LAB and AAB enter on the surface of barley and malt in beer fermentation and grapes in wine fermentation; LAB lowers the pH of the beer/wine while AAB takes the ethanol produced from the yeast and oxidizes it further into vinegar, resulting in a sour taste and smell. AAB are also responsible for the formation of the cellulose SCOBY.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Acetic acid</span> Colorless and faint organic acid found in vinegar

Acetic acid, systematically named ethanoic acid, is an acidic, colourless liquid and organic compound with the chemical formula CH3COOH. Vinegar is at least 4% acetic acid by volume, making acetic acid the main component of vinegar apart from water. It has been used, as a component of vinegar, throughout history from at least the third century BC.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Bacterial cellulose</span> Organic compound

Bacterial cellulose is an organic compound with the formula (C
6H
10O
5)
n produced by certain types of bacteria. While cellulose is a basic structural material of most plants, it is also produced by bacteria, principally of the genera Komagataeibacter, Acetobacter, Sarcina ventriculi and Agrobacterium. Bacterial, or microbial, cellulose has different properties from plant cellulose and is characterized by high purity, strength, moldability and increased water holding ability. In natural habitats, the majority of bacteria synthesize extracellular polysaccharides, such as cellulose, which form protective envelopes around the cells. While bacterial cellulose is produced in nature, many methods are currently being investigated to enhance cellulose growth from cultures in laboratories as a large-scale process. By controlling synthesis methods, the resulting microbial cellulose can be tailored to have specific desirable properties. For example, attention has been given to the bacteria Komagataeibacter xylinus due to its cellulose's unique mechanical properties and applications to biotechnology, microbiology, and materials science.

Alcohol dehydrogenase (quinone) (EC 1.1.5.5, type III ADH, membrane associated quinohaemoprotein alcohol dehydrogenase) is an enzyme with systematic name alcohol:quinone oxidoreductase. This enzyme catalyses the following chemical reaction

Acetobacter pomorum is a bacterium first isolated from industrial vinegar fermentations. Its type strain is LTH 2458T.

Komagataeibacter xylinus is a species of bacteria best known for its ability to produce cellulose, specifically bacterial cellulose.

References

  1. 1 2 Department of Food Science and Technology, State University of Londrina, CEP 86057-970, Londrina, PR, Brazil; Gomes, Rodrigo José; Borges, Maria de Fátima; Embrapa Tropical Agroindustry, CEP 60511-110, Fortaleza, CE, Brazil; Rosa, Morsyleide de Freitas; Embrapa Tropical Agroindustry, CEP 60511-110, Fortaleza, CE, Brazil; Castro-Gómez, Raúl Jorge Hernan; Department of Food Science and Technology, State University of Londrina, CEP 86057-970, Londrina, PR, Brazil; Spinosa, Wilma Aparecida; Department of Food Science and Technology, State University of Londrina, CEP 86057-970, Londrina, PR, Brazil (2018). "Acetic Acid Bacteria in the Food Industry: Systematics, Characteristics and Applications" (PDF). Food Technology and Biotechnology. 56 (2): 139–151. doi:10.17113/ftb.56.02.18.5593. PMC   6117990 . PMID   30228790.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (link)
  2. 1 2 3 Raspor, Peter; Goranovič, Dušan (January 2008). "Biotechnological Applications of Acetic Acid Bacteria". Critical Reviews in Biotechnology. 28 (2): 101–124. doi:10.1080/07388550802046749. ISSN   0738-8551. PMID   18568850.
  3. ↑ Sengun, Ilkin Yucel; Karabiyikli, Seniz (May 2011). "Importance of acetic acid bacteria in food industry". Food Control. 22 (5): 647–656. doi:10.1016/j.foodcont.2010.11.008.
  4. 1 2 3 Gomes, Rodrigo José; Borges, Maria de Fátima; Rosa, Morsyleide de Freitas; Castro-Gómez, Raúl Jorge Hernan (2018). "Acetic Acid Bacteria in the Food Industry: Systematics, Characteristics and Applications" (PDF). Food Technology and Biotechnology. 56 (2): 139–151. doi:10.17113/ftb.56.02.18.5593. PMC   6117990 . PMID   30228790.
  5. ↑ "National Center for Biotechnology Information". www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov. Retrieved 2024-03-19.
  6. ↑ Gillis, M.; Kersters, K.; Gossele, F.; Swings, J.; De Ley, J.; MacKenzie, A. R.; Bousfield, I. J. (1983-01-01). "Rediscovery of Bertrand's Sorbose Bacterium (Acetobacter aceti subsp. xylinum): Proposal to Designate NCIB 11664 in Place of NCIB 4112 (ATCC 23767) as the Type Strain of Acetobacter aceti subsp. xylinum: Request for an Opinion". International Journal of Systematic Bacteriology. 33 (1): 122–124. doi:10.1099/00207713-33-1-122. ISSN   0020-7713.
  7. ↑ Škraban, Jure; Trček, Janja (2017-06-28), "Comparative Genomics of Acetobacter and other Acetic Acid Bacteria", Acetic Acid Bacteria, Boca Raton, FL : CRC Press, [2016] | Series: Food biology series | “A science publishers book.”: CRC Press, pp. 44–70, retrieved 2024-04-19{{citation}}: CS1 maint: location (link)
  8. ↑ Hirose, Yuu; Kumsab, Jakkaphan; Tobe, Ryuta; Mihara, Hisaaki (2020-10-15). Baltrus, David A. (ed.). "Complete Genome Sequence of an Acetic Acid Bacterium, Acetobacter aceti JCM20276". Microbiology Resource Announcements. 9 (42). doi:10.1128/MRA.00962-20. ISSN   2576-098X. PMC   7561692 .
  9. ↑ Sengun, Ilkin Yucel; Karabiyikli, Seniz (May 2011). "Importance of acetic acid bacteria in food industry". Food Control. 22 (5): 647–656. doi:10.1016/j.foodcont.2010.11.008.
  10. ↑ Sakurai, Kenta; Arai, Hiroyuki; Ishii, Masaharu; Igarashi, Yasuo (March 2012). "Changes in the gene expression profile of Acetobacter aceti during growth on ethanol". Journal of Bioscience and Bioengineering. 113 (3): 343–348. doi:10.1016/j.jbiosc.2011.11.005. PMID   22153844.
  11. ↑ Nakano, Shigeru; Fukaya, Masahiro (June 2008). "Analysis of proteins responsive to acetic acid in Acetobacter: Molecular mechanisms conferring acetic acid resistance in acetic acid bacteria". International Journal of Food Microbiology. 125 (1): 54–59. doi:10.1016/j.ijfoodmicro.2007.05.015.
  12. ↑ Arai, Hiroyuki; Sakurai, Kenta; Ishii, Masaharu (2016), Matsushita, Kazunobu; Toyama, Hirohide; Tonouchi, Naoto; Okamoto-Kainuma, Akiko (eds.), "Metabolic Features of Acetobacter aceti", Acetic Acid Bacteria: Ecology and Physiology, Tokyo: Springer Japan, pp. 255–271, doi:10.1007/978-4-431-55933-7_12, ISBN   978-4-431-55933-7 , retrieved 2024-02-29
  13. ↑ Department of Food Science and Technology, State University of Londrina, CEP 86057-970, Londrina, PR, Brazil; Gomes, Rodrigo José; Borges, Maria de Fátima; Embrapa Tropical Agroindustry, CEP 60511-110, Fortaleza, CE, Brazil; Rosa, Morsyleide de Freitas; Embrapa Tropical Agroindustry, CEP 60511-110, Fortaleza, CE, Brazil; Castro-Gómez, Raúl Jorge Hernan; Department of Food Science and Technology, State University of Londrina, CEP 86057-970, Londrina, PR, Brazil; Spinosa, Wilma Aparecida; Department of Food Science and Technology, State University of Londrina, CEP 86057-970, Londrina, PR, Brazil (2018). "Acetic Acid Bacteria in the Food Industry: Systematics, Characteristics and Applications" (PDF). Food Technology and Biotechnology. 56 (2). doi:10.17113/ftb.56.02.18.5593.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (link)
  14. ↑ Arai, Hiroyuki; Sakurai, Kenta; Ishii, Masaharu (2016), Matsushita, Kazunobu; Toyama, Hirohide; Tonouchi, Naoto; Okamoto-Kainuma, Akiko (eds.), "Metabolic Features of Acetobacter aceti", Acetic Acid Bacteria, Tokyo: Springer Japan, pp. 255–271, doi:10.1007/978-4-431-55933-7_12, ISBN   978-4-431-55931-3 , retrieved 2024-04-19
  15. ↑ Arai, Hiroyuki; Sakurai, Kenta; Ishii, Masaharu (2016), Matsushita, Kazunobu; Toyama, Hirohide; Tonouchi, Naoto; Okamoto-Kainuma, Akiko (eds.), "Metabolic Features of Acetobacter aceti", Acetic Acid Bacteria: Ecology and Physiology, Tokyo: Springer Japan, pp. 255–271, doi:10.1007/978-4-431-55933-7_12, ISBN   978-4-431-55933-7 , retrieved 2024-04-04
  16. ↑ Matsushita, Kazunobu; Inoue, Taketo; Adachi, Osao; Toyama, Hirohide (July 1, 2005). "Acetobacter aceti Possesses a Proton Motive Force-Dependent Efflux System for Acetic Acid". Journal of Bacteriology. 187 (13): 4346–4352. doi:10.1128/JB.187.13.4346-4352.2005. ISSN   0021-9193. PMC   1151782 . PMID   15968043.
  17. ↑ Zheng, Yu; Chang, Yangang; Zhang, Renkuan; Song, Jia; Xu, Ying; Liu, Jing; Wang, Min (2018-09-01). "Two-stage oxygen supply strategy based on energy metabolism analysis for improving acetic acid production by Acetobacter pasteurianus". Journal of Industrial Microbiology and Biotechnology. 45 (9): 781–788. doi:10.1007/s10295-018-2060-2. ISSN   1476-5535.
  18. ↑ Nakano, Shigeru; Fukaya, Masahiro (June 2008). "Analysis of proteins responsive to acetic acid in Acetobacter: Molecular mechanisms conferring acetic acid resistance in acetic acid bacteria". International Journal of Food Microbiology. 125 (1): 54–59. doi:10.1016/j.ijfoodmicro.2007.05.015. PMID   17920150.
  19. ↑ Huang, Yong-Yi; Qin, Xiang-Kun; Dai, Yuan-Yuan; Huang, Liang; Huang, Gan-Rong; Qin, Yan-Chun; Wei, Xian; Huang, Yan-Qiang (2022-06-15). "Preparation and hypoglycemic effects of chromium- and zinc-rich Acetobacter aceti". World Journal of Diabetes. 13 (6): 442–453. doi: 10.4239/wjd.v13.i6.442 . ISSN   1948-9358. PMC   9210545 . PMID   35800410.
  20. ↑ Okiyama, Atsushi; Shirae, Hideyuki; Kano, Hideo; Yamanaka, Shigeru (November 1992). "Bacterial cellulose I. Two-stage fermentation process for cellulose production by Acetobacter aceti". Food Hydrocolloids. 6 (5): 471–477. doi:10.1016/S0268-005X(09)80032-5.
  21. ↑ Dayal, Manmeet Singh; Goswami, Navendu; Sahai, Anshuman; Jain, Vibhor; Mathur, Garima; Mathur, Ashwani (April 2013). "Effect of media components on cell growth and bacterial cellulose production from Acetobacter aceti MTCC 2623". Carbohydrate Polymers. 94 (1): 12–16. doi:10.1016/j.carbpol.2013.01.018. PMID   23544503.
  22. ↑ France, Danielle Cook (2016-07-19). "Anticorrosive Influence of Acetobacter aceti Biofilms on Carbon Steel". Journal of Materials Engineering and Performance. 25 (9): 3580–3589. Bibcode:2016JMEP...25.3580F. doi:10.1007/s11665-016-2231-0. ISSN   1059-9495. PMC   5220434 . PMID   28082824.
  23. ↑ Cepec, Eva; Trček, Janja (2022-01-01). "Antimicrobial Resistance of Acetobacter and Komagataeibacter Species Originating from Vinegars". International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health. 19 (1): 463. doi: 10.3390/ijerph19010463 . hdl: 20.500.12556/DKUM-85273 . ISSN   1660-4601.
  24. ↑ "Acetobacter aceti Final Risk Assessment | Biotechnology Program Under Toxic Substances Control Act (TSCA) | US EPA". corpora.tika.apache.org. Retrieved 2024-04-17.
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