Active labour market policies

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Active labour market policies (ALMPs) are government programmes that intervene in the labour market to help the unemployed find work, but also for the underemployed and employees looking for better jobs. In contrast, passive labour market policies involve expenditures on unemployment benefits and early retirement. [1] Historically, labour market policies have developed in response to both market failures and socially/politically unacceptable outcomes within the labor market. Labour market issues include, for instance, the imbalance between labour supply and demand, inadequate income support, shortages of skilled workers, or discrimination against disadvantaged workers. [2]

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Many of these programmes grew out of earlier public works projects, in the United States particularly those implemented under the New Deal, designed to combat widespread unemployment in the developed world during the interwar period. Today, academic analysis of ALMPs is associated with economists such as Lars Calmfors and Richard Layard. [3] [4] ALMPs have traditionally been considered “supply-side measures” because they consisted of different employment programs and job placement policies and were designed to assist the most marginalised groups in the labour market. In more recent times, ALMPs have shifted towards a “demand-side” focus by involving employers in various initiatives aimed at offering employment opportunities to those who are disadvantaged in the labour market. [5]

Active labour market policies are prominent in the economic policy of the Scandinavian countries, although over the 1990s they grew in popularity across Europe as several policy plans were created with the aim of enhancing long-lasting labor market performance. Notable examples include the New Deal in the UK and many welfare-to-work programmes in the US.

Origins of ALMPs

Three distinct periods can be observed in the evolution of ALMPs in OECD countries, with each emphasising different types of policies. Initially, during the 1950s and 1960s, active policies were developed by countries facing labour shortages to ensure a workforce with the necessary skills for expanding industrial economies. During this period, the primary policy objective was upskilling. The second period followed the oil crisis of 1973 to 1974 when ALMPs faced a much more challenging environment, marked by persistently high unemployment rates. As a result, in many countries, the primary function of ALMPs shifted towards job placement. Finally, since the mid-1990s, labour-market policies have primarily focused on encouraging and facilitating the re-entry of unemployed individuals and non-working individuals back into the labour market through a combination of incentive reinforcement and employment assistance programs.

The first active labour market policy measures date back to 1951 with the creation of the Rehn-Meidner model in Sweden developed by two economists from the social democratic trade union movement to modernise post-war Swedish industry and enhance productivity by combining a unified wage policy of solidarity which, as it progressed centrally, eliminated the least competitive industries among the country while offering a substantial retraining package to the workers thus laid off so that they could join the more modern and efficient industries. [6] Despite its origins as a social-democratic policy, the concept of ALMP has gained acceptance among politicians across the ideological spectrum, including liberals, conservatives, and liberal economists.

The Rehn-Meiner model was a distinct aspect of Sweden's economic history and was not replicated elsewhere. Nonetheless, the concept of implementing ALMPs in a rapidly modernising economy experiencing labour shortages was attractive in other regions as well. However, the methods employed varied, as they were dependent on the starting point of each country.

Attempts at active labour market policies were also made in Italy in the 1950s. The issue of unemployment in Italy differed from that of other countries - it was not due to declining industries, but rather a surplus of labour in the southern region of the country. During the 1950s and 1960s, Italy experienced a strong economic growth period known as the “Italian economic miracle”, but still faced a labour shortage in the north. At the same time, the southern region remained a significant source of labour, yet lacked adequate skills. To bridge the gap between skill demand and supply, the country introduced an apprenticeship law in 1955, which offered on-the-job training and lower waged for trainees. However, the program did not gain popularity. Employers were generally not allowed to choose apprentices, and the labour exchange officer assigned them instead. Trade unions also criticised the law for exploiting young workers with low pay.

In 1963, the French government under Gaullist leadership proposed a reform for the unemployment compensation system aimed at facilitating (re-)training for the unemployed. However, this proposal faced strong opposition from trade unions who feared increased state intervention in the management of unemployment insurance (UNEDIC). In France, social security, including unemployment insurance, is managed jointly by social partners - they have traditionally opposed government intervention, viewing it as interference in a “private” institution. The outcome was therefore a watered-down version of the original suggestion.

Germany also adopted a similar approach a few years later with the implementation of the Employment Promotion Act in 1969. The law was enacted during the brief tenure of the first “grand coalition government” in the country's postwar history. The law focused on a new preventive approach to labour-market policy, with an emphasis on aligning workforce skills with technological advancements. This newly adopted law also created the Federal Institute of Labour, which was responsible for a range of services including unemployment compensation, continuing education, retraining, employment services for the disabled, job creation programs, and training. [6]

Concept of social investment

Active labour market policies are based on the concept of social investment, which rests on the idea of basing decision-making on the welfare of society in quantifiable terms, by increasing the employability, incomes and productivity of economic agents, so this approach interprets state expenditure not as consumption but as an investment that will produce returns on the welfare of individuals. The adoption of this concept has thus added to the traditional task of social policy to maintain income levels that of promoting labour market integration by removing barriers to entry through state intervention. [7]

Program types

ALMPs have diverse origins and forms. According to Giulano Bonolli, there are four main categories of ALMPs: [6]

The politics of ALMPs

A number of authors [11] have argued that countries with stronger left wing political parties and trade unions have more developed ALMP. On the other hand, social democratic parties may not promote ALMP if their constituents are well protected workers and hence face little risk of being unemployed. [12] More recently, the notion that different types of ALMP have similar political determinants has been contested. [6] In the United States and Great Britain, fragmented and under-resourced ALMPs have been attributed as a factor in the rise of populist backlash politics in the Rust Belt and post-industrial northern England during the mid-2010s. [13] [14] [15]

Levels of implementation

Active labour market policies in general are most prevalent in the Nordic countries (with the exception of Norway), notably in Denmark where such expenditure represented almost 2% of GDP in 2017 compared to an OECD average of 0.52% [16] this same year whereas on the contrary, Eastern European countries invest less in these policies. (with the exception of Hungary).

Effectiveness

Active labour market policies in Europe

Active Labour Market Policies represent a critical component of The European Employment Strategy (EES), which recognises employment as a primary objective of a joint economic policy. The main categories of ALMPs in European countries are training programs, private sector incentive schemes, direct employment programs, and Services and Sanctions (a category that includes all measured focuses on enhancing job search effectiveness, such as counselling, monitoring or job search aid). Numerous active labour market programs in European countries are tailored to address the needs of young job seekers (aged 25 and below) who are unemployed. Additionally, several countries have active labour market programs designed for individuals with disabilities.

Training programs are the most common active labour market measure implemented in Europe. However, the assessment of their effectiveness has shown mixed results. In some cases, treatment effect estimates are negative, while in others, they are insignificant or show modestly positive results. Nevertheless, there are indications that training programs increase post-treatment employment probabilities, especially for participants with better labour market prospects and for women. [18]

In the recent years, job guarantee programs have received renewed attention. Job guarantee trials have started in European countries [19] and delivered first promising results. [20] European institutions and international organizations have called for increased funding to expand regional employment guarantee pilots. [21] [22]

Active labor market policies in United Kingdom

The United Kingdom has adopted progressive Active Labor market Policies (ALMPs), [6] which can be broadly classified into three categories, including employment subsidies and direct job creation programs, vocational training and education programs, and job search assistance and counseling. While these policies focus on helping job-seekers find employment on their own, they also provide the necessary support and incentives to facilitate their reintegration into the labor market. [23] This combination of active and passive policies is influenced by a range of economic, social, and political factors. The United Kingdom has historically had a liberal economic model, with relatively low levels of regulation and social protection. This has led to a focus on market-based solutions to labor market problems, including the use of ALMPs to create employment opportunities. In the recent times, the Job retention scheme was introduced in 2020 due to the COVID-19 pandemic, to prevent layoffs. [24] The UK's ALMP's policies can be classified more as employment policies, as they primarily focus on creating job opportunities while still enabling the workers to find employment own. The existing configuration of active and passive labor market policies in the country is a result of the country's liberal economic model, recent experience of high unemployment rates, and highly competitive labor market.

Active labour market policies in the Czech republic

See also

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References

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Further reading