Body cathexis

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Body cathexis is defined as the degree of satisfaction or dissatisfaction one feels towards various parts and aspects of their own body. [1] This evaluative dimension of body image is dependent on a person's investment of mental and emotional energy in body size, parts, shape, processes, and functions, and is integral to one's sense of self-concept. [2] First recognized by Jourard and Secord, body cathexis is assessed by examining correlations between measures of self-concept or esteem and bodily attitudes. An individual's evaluation of their own body tends to drive various behaviors, including clothing choices and weight management, and the existence of a universal ideal for certain dimensions of body type is, in many cases, a source of anxiety and insecurity.

Contents

While the body has been studied by psychologists from numerous different viewpoints, few recent reports of systematic empirical research into feelings about the body exist. [3] However, body cathexis is of crucial importance to understanding personality, since feelings about the body closely correspond to feelings about the self and produce marked behavioral consequences. [2] Due to the substantial amount of attention individuals devote to the grooming and concern for bodily appearance, body cathexis is believed to be intrinsically related to the self-concept, with high self-esteem and self-acceptance serving as preventive factors against body dissatisfaction. [3] [4]

Among females in particular, one's general attitude about the body is a significant personality variable with mental health implications. [5] Recent studies have examined the effects of bodily attitudes on consumer dissatisfaction or satisfaction with fit of apparel, disordered eating, and participation in weight loss programs. [6]

Body Cathexis Scale

First introduced by Secord and Jourard in 1953, the Body Cathexis Scale provides an objective measure of one's feelings towards various aspects of their body. [1] Originally composed of 46 items, the questionnaire asks individuals to indicate the strength and direction of feeling he or she has about certain bodily parts and functions according to a five-point Likert scale ranging from 1, “strongly negative,” to 5, “strongly positive.” [7]

The body cathexis items used in the scale include body characteristics such as “width of shoulders,” “facial complexion,” and “body build.” [1] Individuals are to consider each of the items listed and assign a numerical score that best represents their feelings about the various body aspects. Total body cathexis (BC) is obtained by summing the ratings for each of the 46 characteristics and dividing by total number of items.

Body Image and the Self

Body image is one of the most significant components of an individual's self-concept. One's perception of their body and the feelings associated with this perceived image greatly influence overall satisfaction with the self and can predict levels of self-esteem. [7] The relationship between body image and the self-concept has been investigated extensively by Secord and Jourard, and as their research indicates, self-esteem scores and personal identification are highly correlated with body cathexis, acceptance, and overall satisfaction with physical body traits and functions. [3]

Among the few empirical studies relevant to the relatedness of the body and the self is that of Schilder, who – through a series of self-report questionnaires – procured evidence suggesting that negative feelings, associations, and memories about the body can probe higher levels of dissatisfaction with the self. [8] In approaching the problem of body cathexis appraisal, Secord and Jourard adapted Shilder's methods to test their hypothesis that feelings about the body are correlated with overall feelings about the self. [2] In their study, the researchers developed a method for assessing an individual's feelings towards their bodily features in order to ascertain whether or not the variables attained through these methods are relevant to personality theory. Using scales of body cathexis and self cathexis, the Maslow Test of Psychological Security-Insecurity, and an anxiety-related body cathexis homonym test, Secord and Jourard concluded that the body and self tend to be cathected to the same degree. Consequently, as suggested by the results of both the body cathexis and self cathexis scales (which represent attitudes about conceptual aspects of the self in correlation to the body), low body cathexis is significantly associated with anxiety, insecurity, and negative perceptions of the self. [2]

Likewise, an individual's perception of self-worth is a fluctuating attitude that can rise and fall with changing components of the physical self. This attitude, coined self-esteem, is an evaluative component of the psychological self that is partially dependent upon one's satisfaction with physical appearance. As various studies indicate, changes in body composition, perceptions of physical attractiveness, and overall body condition provide inferential support for the claim that body image is related to an individual's self-esteem and perceived worth. [2] [9]

Sex Differences

Because body image and body weight are a high priority in western culture, men and women alike face gender-based societal pressures to achieve an ideal body image, which in turn influences feelings about the body and preoccupation with size, shape, weight, and appearance. [1] According to Salusso-Deonier and Schwarzkopf, gender is a salient factor in body image development, and due to sex differences in the management and enhancement of appearance, females tend to exhibit more negative cathexis responses to the body and self as compared to men. [10]

As their study suggests, body cathexis scores among females tend to decrease as body type varies from the ideal thin, while body cathexis scores among males show similar trends when one's perceived body is fatter or thinner than the muscular ideal. [10] However, though previous literature demonstrates that both men and women are concerned with weight and appearance, men generally have higher body cathexis than women. Cultural scripting, particularly male socialization that fosters exercise involvement and physical fitness, may be partially responsible for higher body cathexis scores among males, since participation in fitness activities tends to yield significant improvement in body satisfaction. [10] Similarly, dysphoric body image experiences often mediated by specific contextual cues also promote sizable sex differences in body cathexis and the occurrence of negative body image emotions. [11] Relative to men, women are more strongly invested in their looks and tend to report a more negative overall body image evaluation. As the findings of their study confirm, Muth and Cash suggest that the gender-differential societal and personal standards of body attractiveness place women at a higher predisposition for less favorable, more invested, and more distressing body image attitudes. [11]

Associated Behaviors

Feelings about the body have marked behavioral consequences, and as both casual and clinical observations suggest, body cathexis and body perceptions play a significant role in garment fit satisfaction. [3] [12] While the physical dimensions and product design of apparel are partially responsible for consumers’ dissatisfaction with clothing fit, consumers are often quick to blame themselves and their body type when a product does not work. For females in particular, fashionable clothing is often designed to fit a specific body type; thus, when a clothing article does not fit properly, the consumer tends to blame the poor fit on their body and not the design of the apparel – a result of the individual's low body cathexis. [12]

Similarly, social stimuli may play a reciprocal role in anticipating behavior, contributing to the formation of negative feelings about the body. [12] Since consumers often rely on social information and preconceived notions of the ideal body image when shaping their self-concept, apparel fit may contribute to body cathexis and overall feelings about the self. Therefore, dissatisfaction with the fit of garments can lead to lower body cathexis and negative attitudes regarding overall appearance, body dimensions, and weight. [12]

Along with garment fit satisfaction, research also indicates that body image attitudes and emotions may be correlated with disordered eating behaviors. [13] Body dissatisfaction, especially negative attitudes about weight, is a significant risk factor for the development of depressive symptoms and low self-esteem, as well as unhealthy weight control strategies, such as skipping meals, fasting, crash dieting, and self-induced purging. Low body cathexis and preoccupation can contribute to the development of eating disorders among female adolescents in particular, often a result of societal pressures and expectations to achieve the ideal, thin body type. [13]

See also

Related Research Articles

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In social philosophy, objectification is the act of treating a person, or sometimes an animal, as an object or a thing. It is part of dehumanization, the act of disavowing the humanity of others. Sexual objectification, the act of treating a person as a mere object of sexual desire, is a subset of objectification, as is self-objectification, the objectification of one's self. In Marxism, the objectification of social relationships is discussed as "reification".

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Body image</span> Persons perception of the aesthetics or sexual attractiveness of their own body

Body image is a person's thoughts, feelings and perception of the aesthetics or sexual attractiveness of their own body. The concept of body image is used in a number of disciplines, including neuroscience, psychology, medicine, psychiatry, psychoanalysis, philosophy, cultural and feminist studies; the media also often uses the term. Across these disciplines, there is no single consensus definition, but broadly speaking body image consists of the ways people view themselves; their memories, experiences, assumptions, and comparisons about their own appearances; and their overall attitudes towards their own respective heights, shapes, and weights—all of which are shaped by prevalent social and cultural ideals.

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Celebrity worship syndrome (CWS) is an obsessive addictive disorder in which a person becomes overly involved with the details of a celebrity's personal and professional life. Psychologists have indicated that though many people obsess over film, television, sport and pop stars, the only common factor between them is that they are all figures in the public eye. Written observations of celebrity worship date back to the 19th century.

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The figure rating scale (FRS), also known as the Stunkard scale, is a psychometric measurement originally developed in 1983 to communicate about the unknown weights of a research subject's absent relatives, and since adapted to assess body image.

Social comparison bias is the tendency to have feelings of dislike and competitiveness with someone seen as physically, socially, or mentally better than oneself. Social comparison bias or social comparison theory is the idea that individuals determine their own worth based on how they compare to others. The theory was developed in 1954 by psychologist Leon Festinger. This can be compared to social comparison, which is believed to be central to achievement motivation, feelings of injustice, depression, jealousy and people's willingness to remain in relationships or jobs. People often compete to get the best grades, the best jobs and the best houses. In many situations, social comparison bias is fairly self-explanatory. For example, one might make a comparison between the low-end department stores they frequent and the designer stores of their peers, such comparisons may elicit feelings of resentment, anger and envy with that peer. This social comparison bias involves wealth and social status. Some people make social comparisons, but are largely unaware of them. In most cases, we try to compare ourselves to those in our peer group or with whom we are similar.

The effects of advertising on body image have been studied by researchers, ranging from psychologists to marketing professionals. "These days we know that the media and body image are closely related. Particularly, the body image advertising portrays affects our own body image. Of course, there are many other things that influence our body image: parenting, education, intimate relationships, and so on. The popular media does have a big impact, though" This is because thousands of advertisements contain messages about physical attractiveness and beauty, examples of which include commercials for clothes, cosmetics, weight reduction, and physical fitness. Researchers have conducted studies in an attempt to see if such advertisements have effects on teenage body image, and what those effects might be.

Gender advertisement refers to the images in advertising that depict stereotypical gender roles and displays. Gender displays are used heavily in advertising in order to establish the role of one gender in relation with the other, and some scholars argue that advertisers are obsessed with gender. Advertisers focus on gender relationships, because people define themselves by gender, and gender can be "communicated at a glance", making it easy for advertisers to use this theme in their work. The effects of advertising on body image have been studied by researchers, ranging from psychologists to marketing professionals. "These days we know that the media and body image are closely related. Particularly, the body image advertising portrays affects our own body image. Of course, there are many other things that influence our body image: parenting, education, intimate relationships, and so on. The popular media does have a big impact, though." This is because thousands of advertisements contain messages about physical attractiveness and beauty, examples which include commercials for clothes, cosmetics, weight reduction, and physical fitness. Researchers have conducted studies in an attempt to see if such advertisements have effects on teenage body image, and what those effects might be. Scholars from the University of Colorado and Millsaps College conducted research that concluded that the images, symbols, and practices of the media are used by the audiences they reach and that media does, in important ways, have the “last word” concerning the way individuals feel about themselves. Women account for 85% of consumer purchases.

Contingent self-esteem (CSE) is self-esteem based on the approval of others or on social comparisons. Certain events will shape one's self-esteem when the individual bases their self-worth on the outcome of those events. The success or failure of any situation can result in fluctuations of an individual's self-esteem. A manifestation of someone with contingent self-esteem is excessive self-consciousness. Such excessive self-consciousness, as occurs with contingent self-esteem, involves extreme criticism of one's self, concern of how they are perceived by their peers, and feelings of discomfort in social settings. One's self-esteem is directly affected when domains of contingencies are used to measure one's self-worth. Self-esteem can also be affected when an individual compares their appearance or success to that of someone else or when their self-esteem is contingent to the relationships around them.

The thin ideal is the concept of the ideally slim female body. The common perception of this ideal is a woman who possesses a slender, feminine physique with a small waist and little body fat. The size that the thin ideal woman should be is decreasing while the rate of female obesity is simultaneously increasing, making this iconic body difficult for women to maintain. This creates a gap between the actual appearance of an average woman’s body and its expected appearance which, depending on the extent to which a woman internalizes the necessity of living up to this ideal for her well-being and peace of mind, may have serious psychological effects.

Body shape refers to the many physical attributes of the human body that make up its appearance, including size and countenance. Body shape has come to imply not only sexual/reproductive ability, but wellness and fitness. In the West, slenderness is associated with happiness, success, youth, and social acceptability. Being overweight is associated with laziness. The media promote a weight-conscious standard for women more often than for men. Deviance from these norms result in social consequences. The media perpetuate this ideal in various ways, particularly glorifying and focusing on thin actors and actresses, models, and other public figures while avoiding the use or image of overweight individuals. This thin ideal represents less than 5% of the American population.

The feminine beauty ideal is a specific set of beauty standards regarding traits that are ingrained in women throughout their lives and from a young age to increase their perceived physical attractiveness. It is a phenomenon experienced by many women in the world, though the traits change over time and vary in country and culture.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Body positivity</span> Movement advocating the mental quality that seeks to accept oneself and ones body

Body positivity is a social movement focused on the acceptance of all bodies, regardless of size, shape, skin tone, gender, and physical abilities, while challenging present-day beauty standards as an undesirable social construct. Proponents focus on the appreciation of the functionality and health of the human body, instead of its physiological appearance.

Body image disturbance (BID) is a common symptom in patients with eating disorders and is characterized by an altered perception of one's own body.

Body checking is a compulsive behaviour related but not exclusive to various forms of body dysmorphic disorders. It involves frequently collecting various information about one’s own body in terms of size, shape, appearance or weight. Frequent expressions of this form of behaviour entails for example mirror checking, trying to feel one’s own bones, pinching the abdomen, frequent body weight measurement and comparing your own body to that of others. Studies have shown that an increased rate of body checking correlates with an overall increased dissatisfaction with the own body.

References

  1. 1 2 3 4 Jourard, S. M., & Secord, P.F. (1955). Body cathexis and the ideal female figure. The Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology, 50(2), 243-246. doi : 10.1037/h0041128
  2. 1 2 3 4 5 Secord, Paul F.; Jourard, Sidney M. (1953). "The appraisal of body-cathexis: body-cathexis and the self". Journal of Consulting Psychology. 17 (5): 343–347. doi:10.1037/h0060689. PMID   13109086.
  3. 1 2 3 4 Jourard, Sidney M.; Secord, Paul F. (1955-05-01). "Body-Cathexis and Personality". British Journal of Psychology. 46 (2): 130–138. doi:10.1111/j.2044-8295.1955.tb00531.x. ISSN   2044-8295. PMID   14378538.
  4. ↑ Secord, P. F. & Jourard, S. M. (1953). The appraisal of body cathexis: Body cathexis and the self. Journal of Consulting Psychology, 17(5), 343-347. doi : 10.1037/h0060689
  5. ↑ Kyung Song, H., & Ashdown, S. P. (2013). Female apparel consumers’ understanding of body size and shape: Relationship among body measurements, fit satisfaction, and body cathexis. Clothing and Textiles Research Journal, 31(3), 143-146. doi : 10.1177/0887302X13493127
  6. ↑ LaBat, K. L., & DeLong, M. R. (1990). Body cathexis and satisfaction with fit of apparel. Clothing and Textiles Research Journal, 8(2), 43-48. doi : 10.1177/0887302X9000800206
  7. 1 2 Tucker, L. (1981). Internal structure, factor satisfaction, and reliability of the body cathexis scale. Perceptual and Motor Skills, 53(3), 891-896. doi : 10.2466/pms.1981.53.3.891
  8. ↑ Schilder, P. Psychotherapy. New York: Norton, 1938.
  9. ↑ Melnick, M. J., & Mookerjee, S. (1991). Effects of advanced weight-training on body cathexis and self-esteem. Perceptual and Motor Skills, 72(3), 1335-1345. doi : 10.2466/pms.1991.72.3c.1335
  10. 1 2 3 Salusso-Deonier, C. J., & Schwarzkopf, R. J. (1991). Sex differences in body cathexis associated with exercise involvement. Perceptual and Motor Skills, 73, 139-145. doi : 10.2466/pms.1991.73.1.139
  11. 1 2 Muth, Jennifer L.; Cash, Thomas F. (1997-08-01). "Body-Image Attitudes: What Difference Does Gender Make?1". Journal of Applied Social Psychology. 27 (16): 1438–1452. doi:10.1111/j.1559-1816.1997.tb01607.x. ISSN   1559-1816.
  12. 1 2 3 4 LaBat, K. L., & DeLong, M. R. (1990). Body cathexis and satisfaction with fit of apparel. Clothing and Textiles Research Journal, 2, 43-48. doi : 10.1177/0887302X9000800206
  13. 1 2 Paxton, S. J., & Franko, D.L. (2009). Body image and eating disorders. In M. A. Cucciare & K. R. Weingardt (Eds.), Using Technology to Support Evidence-Based Behavioral Health Practices: A Clinician’s Guide (pp. 151-165). New York, NY: Taylor & Francis Group.
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