Chrysoperla carnea

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Chrysoperla carnea
Chrysoperla carnea01.jpg
Chrysoperla carnea specimen from Norway
Scientific classification OOjs UI icon edit-ltr.svg
Domain: Eukaryota
Kingdom: Animalia
Phylum: Arthropoda
Class: Insecta
Order: Neuroptera
Family: Chrysopidae
Genus: Chrysoperla
Species:
C. carnea
Binomial name
Chrysoperla carnea
(Stephens, 1836)
Synonyms
  • Chrysoperla carneia
  • Chrysoperla carnes

Chrysoperla carnea, one of the species of common green lacewing, [1] [2] is an insect in the Chrysopidae family. Although the adults feed on nectar, pollen and aphid honeydew, the larvae are active predators and feed on aphids and other small insects. It has been used in the biological control of insect pests on crops.

Contents

Chrysoperla carnea was originally considered to be a single species with a holarctic distribution but it has now been shown to be a complex of many cryptic, sibling subspecies. These are indistinguishable from each other morphologically but can be recognised by variations in the vibrational songs the insects use to communicate with each other, which they especially do during courtship. [3]

Description

The green lacewing eggs are oval and secured to the plant by long slender stalks. They are pale green when first laid but become gray later. The larvae are about one millimetre long when they first hatch. They are brown and resemble small alligators, crawling actively around in search of prey. [4] [ unreliable source? ] They have a pair of pincer-like mandibles on their head with which they grasp their prey, sometimes lifting the victim off the leaf surface to prevent its escape. The larvae inject enzymes into the bodies of their victims which digest the internal organs, after which they suck out the liquidated body fluids.[ citation needed ] The larvae grow to about eight millimetres long before they spin circular cocoons and pupate. [4] [ unreliable source? ] [5]

Adult green lacewings are a pale green colour with long, threadlike antennae and glossy, golden, compound eyes. They have a delicate appearance and are from twelve to twenty millimetres long with large, membranous, pale green wings which they fold tent-wise above their abdomens. They are weak fliers and have a fluttery form of flight. They are often seen during the evenings and at night when they are attracted by lights. [4] [ unreliable source? ] The high green sensitivity of the superposition eyes allows the green lacewings to recognize fresh green leaves that they use to find honey dew produced by aphids, a site for egglaying and a resting place. [6]

Distribution and habitat

Chrysoperla carnea is an exclusively European species. However, due to taxonomic revisions to the genus, in particular the Chrysoperla carnea species group, the exact geographic bounds of the species remain in question. [3] As of 2009, two of the primary candidates for the true C. carnea are designated as Cc2 ("slow motorboat") and Cc4 ("motorboat"). [7] Cc2 is the more restricted of the two candidates, only extending from central Spain north to England and east to Greece and Hungary. Cc4 is more widespread, ranging from the Southern Alps to the north through the United Kingdom and into the southern portion Fennoscandia and to the east to western or central Russia. Both candidates also differ in terms of habitat, with Cc2 being restricted to warmer elevations of below 1,000 meters whereas Cc4 is more tolerant of the cold and ranges into elevations above 1,000 meters. [3]

Life cycle

Chrysoperla carnea larva photographed in Belgium Chrysoperla.carnea.larva.jpg
Chrysoperla carnea larva photographed in Belgium

The green lacewing adults overwinter buried in leaf litter at the edge of fields or other rough places, emerging when the weather warms up in spring. Each female lacewing lays several hundred small eggs at the rate of two to five per day, choosing concealed spots underneath leaves or on shoots near potential prey. [4] [ unreliable source? ] The eggs are normally laid during the hours of darkness. [8]

The larvae hatch in three to six days, eat voraciously and moult three times as they grow. [5] [4] They feed not only on aphids but also on many other types of insects and even prey on larger creatures, such as caterpillars. They can consume large numbers of prey and completely destroy aphid colonies. When food is scarce, they turn cannibal and eat each other.[ citation needed ] After two to three weeks, the mature larvae secrete silk and build round, parchment-like cocoons in concealed positions on plants. From these, the adults emerge eleven to thirteen days later. [9] The length of the life cycle (under 4 weeks in summer conditions) is greatly influenced by the temperature and there may be several generations each year under favourable conditions. [5] [4] [ unreliable source? ]

Biological control

Chrysoperla carnea adults eat pollen and honeydew and are not predatory, but the larvae have been recorded as feeding on seventy different prey species in five insect orders. The prey are mostly from the order Hemiptera and are predominantly aphids on low growing vegetation. [8] [ unreliable source? ] On crops, the larvae have been reported as attacking several species of aphids, red spider mites, thrips, whitefly, the eggs of leafhoppers, leaf miners, psyllids, small moths and caterpillars, beetle larvae and the tobacco budworm. They are considered to be important predators of the long-tailed mealybug under glass. [10] C. carnea occurs naturally in many growing regions of the northern hemisphere. It is considered an important aphid predator in cotton crops in Russia and Egypt, sugar beet in Germany and vineyards in Europe. [4] [ unreliable source? ] It has been found to be effective at controlling the cotton whitefly, Bemisia tabaci , in cotton crops in Pakistan. [11] [ unreliable source? ] The presence of the larvae on the foliage was found to inhibit visitation and oviposition by B. tabaci which suggests the larvae may produce a volatile semiochemical which repels the whitefly. [8] [ unreliable source? ]

Although the larvae are effective as biological control agents, in open air environments the adult lacewings tend to disperse widely. They may remain in the original release location if they have sources of nectar, pollen or honeydew to feed on in the general vicinity. Commercial supplies of related species, usually eggs, are available from many outlets in North America. [12] However, no true C. carnea occurs in North America. [13]

When attempts were made to introduce the species into India, and New Zealand between the 1920s and 1970s, the lacewings failed to become established, perhaps because of the absence of certain yeast symbionts necessary to their development which were absent from their new environments. [8] [14]

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Aphid</span> Superfamily of insects

Aphids are small sap-sucking insects and members of the superfamily Aphidoidea. Common names include greenfly and blackfly, although individuals within a species can vary widely in color. The group includes the fluffy white woolly aphids. A typical life cycle involves flightless females giving live birth to female nymphs—who may also be already pregnant, an adaptation scientists call telescoping generations—without the involvement of males. Maturing rapidly, females breed profusely so that the number of these insects multiplies quickly. Winged females may develop later in the season, allowing the insects to colonize new plants. In temperate regions, a phase of sexual reproduction occurs in the autumn, with the insects often overwintering as eggs.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Whitefly</span> Family of insects

Whiteflies are Hemipterans that typically feed on the undersides of plant leaves. They comprise the family Aleyrodidae, the only family in the superfamily Aleyrodoidea. More than 1550 species have been described.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Neuroptera</span> Order of insects

The insect order Neuroptera, or net-winged insects, includes the lacewings, mantisflies, antlions, and their relatives. The order consists of some 6,000 species. Neuroptera is grouped together with the Megaloptera and Raphidioptera (snakeflies) in the unranked taxon Neuropterida.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Chrysopidae</span> Family of insects

Green lacewings are insects in the large family Chrysopidae of the order Neuroptera. There are about 85 genera and 1,300–2,000 species in this widespread group. Members of the genera Chrysopa and Chrysoperla are very common in North America and Europe; they are very similar and many of their species have been moved from one genus to the other time and again, and in the nonscientific literature assignment to Chrysopa and Chrysoperla can rarely be relied upon. Since they are the most familiar neuropterans to many people, they are often simply called "lacewings". Since most of the diversity of Neuroptera are properly referred to as some sort of "lacewing", common lacewings is preferable.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Silverleaf whitefly</span> Species of true bug

The silverleaf whitefly is one of several species of whitefly that are currently important agricultural pests. A review in 2011 concluded that the silverleaf whitefly is actually a species complex containing at least 40 morphologically indistinguishable species.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Hemerobiidae</span> Family of insects

Hemerobiidae is a family of Neuropteran insects commonly known as brown lacewings, comprising about 500 species in 28 genera. Most are yellow to dark brown, but some species are green. They are small; most have forewings 4–10 mm long. These insects differ from the somewhat similar Chrysopidae not only by the usual coloring but also by the wing venation: hemerobiids differ from chrysopids in having numerous long veins and forked costal cross veins. Some genera are widespread, but most are restricted to a single biogeographical realm. Some species have reduced wings to the degree that they are flightless. Imagines (adults) of subfamily Drepanepteryginae mimic dead leaves. Hemerobiid larvae are usually less hairy than chrysopid larvae.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Coccinellidae</span> Family of beetles

Coccinellidae is a widespread family of small beetles. They are commonly known as ladybugs in North America and ladybirds in the United Kingdom; "lady" refers to mother Mary. Entomologists use the names ladybird beetles or lady beetles to avoid confusion with true bugs. The more than 6,000 described species have a global distribution and are found in a variety of habitats. They are oval beetles with a domed back and flat underside. Many of the species have conspicuous aposematic (warning) colours and patterns, such as red with black spots, that warn potential predators that they taste bad.

<i>Encarsia</i> Genus of wasps

Encarsia is a large genus of minute parasitic wasps of the family Aphelinidae. The genus is very diverse with currently about 400 described species and worldwide distribution. The number of existing species is expected to be several times higher because many species are still undescribed. Encarsia is a very complex genus, with specimens showing both inter- and intra-specific variations, making morphological classification difficult.

<i>Coleomegilla maculata</i> Species of beetle

Coleomegilla maculata, commonly known as the spotted lady beetle, pink spotted lady beetle or twelve-spotted lady beetle, is a large coccinellid beetle native to North America. The adults and larvae feed primarily on aphids and the species has been used as a biological control agent. Based on name connotation and to avoid confusion with other species also called "spotted ladybeetle", spotted pink ladybeetle is probably the most appropriate common name for this species.

<i>Chrysoperla</i> Genus of insects

Chrysoperla is a genus of common green lacewings in the neuropteran family Chrysopidae. Therein they belong to the Chrysopini, the largest tribe of subfamily Chrysopinae. Their larvae are predatory and feed on aphids, and members of this genus have been used in biological pest control.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Chrysopinae</span> Subfamily of lacewings

Chrysopinae is the nominate subfamily of green lacewings in the insect family Chrysopidae in the order Neuroptera. This subfamily is also the largest within the family and comprises about 60 genera.

<i>Chrysopa</i> Genus of insects

Chrysopa is a genus of green lacewings in the neuropteran family Chrysopidae.

<i>Chrysopa perla</i> Species of lacewing

Chrysopa perla, the Pearly Green Lacewing, is an insect species belonging to the green lacewing family, Chrysopidae.

<i>Chrysoperla lucasina</i> Species of insect

Chrysoperla lucasina is a species of neuropteran of the family Chrysopidae. They are found mainly in the United Kingdom, the Czech Republic, France, Germany, Greece, Italy, Spain, Portugal, Switzerland, in western Asia and northern Africa.

Dicyphus hesperus is a species of true bug in the family Miridae. It is a generalist predator of other insects and also feeds on plant tissues. It is native to North America and has been used there in biological control of agricultural pests, especially whitefly on tomatoes.

Macrolophus caliginosus is a species of true bug in the family Miridae. It is omnivorous and both preys on insects and feeds on plant tissues. It is used in Europe in the biological control of whitefly in tomatoes grown under glass.

<i>Micromus tasmaniae</i> Species of insect

Micromus tasmaniae, known as the Tasmanian brown lacewing, is a species of brown lacewing in the family Hemerobiidae. It is widespread in Australia, New Zealand, and Pacific Islands such as New Caledonia and Vanuatu.

<i>Chrysoperla rufilabris</i> Species of lacewing

Chrysoperla rufilabris, also known as the red-lipped green lacewing, is a species of green lacewing in the family Chrysopidae.

<i>Mallada signatus</i> Species of lacewing insect

Mallada signatus, commonly known as the green lacewing is a species of insect described by Wilhelm Gottlieb Schneider in 1851.

<i>Chrysoperla plorabunda</i> Species of insect

Chrysoperla plorabunda, also known as a green lacewing, is an insect belonging to the cryptic carnea complex of the genus. Species in the complex are nearly identical in morphology, with differences in subtrate-borne vibrational songs being the only identifying factor. C. plorabunda has a widespread distribution across North America, ranging from coast to coast and from northern Canada down to Mexico. Within that range, they are typically found in open habitats such as grasslands and cultivated fields, as well as on the edges of deciduous forests and within coniferous forests. Adults feed predominately on nectar and honeydew, while larvae feed on other soft-bodied arthropods.

References

  1. ↑ Villenave-Chasset, Johanna; Thierry, Dominique; Al Mamun, Abdullah; Lodé, Thierry; Rat-Morris, Elizabeth (2005). "The pollens consumed by common green lacewings Chrysoperla spp. (Neuroptera: Chrysopidae) in cabbage crop environment in western France". 2005European Journal of Entomology. 102 (3): 547–552. doi: 10.14411/eje.2005.078 .
  2. ↑ Brooks, S.J. (1994). "A taxonomic review of the common green lacewing genus Chrysoperla (Neuroptera: Chrysopidae)" (PDF). Bulletin of the British Museum (Natural History) Entomology. 63 (2): 137–210. Retrieved 2022-01-21.
  3. 1 2 3 Henry, C. S.; Brooks, S. J.; Duelli, P.; Johnson, J. B. (2002). "Discovering the True Chrysoperla carnea (Insecta: Neuroptera: Chrysopidae) Using Song Analysis, Morphology, and Ecology". Annals of the Entomological Society of America. 95 (2): 172. doi:10.1603/0013-8746(2002)095[0172:DTTCCI]2.0.CO;2. ISSN   0013-8746. S2CID   85695196.
  4. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 "Chrysoperla carnea". Cornell University. Archived from the original on 2011-01-06. Retrieved 2011-01-21.
  5. 1 2 3 Nadeem, S.; Hamed, M.; Nadeem, M. K.; Hasnain, M.; Atta, B. M.; Saeed, N. A.; Ashfaq, M. (30 June 2012). "COMPARATIVE STUDY OF DEVELOPMENTAL AND REPRODUCTIVE CHARACTERISTICS OF CHRYSOPERLA CARNEA (STEPHENS) (NEUROPTERA: CHRYSOPIDAE) AT DIFFERENT REARING TEMPERATURES". Journal of Animal and Plant Sciences. 22 (2).
  6. ↑ Kral, K., Stelzl, M. (1998) Daily visual sensitivity pattern in the green lacewing Chrysoperla carnea (Neuroptera: Chrysopidae). European Journal of Entomology 95: 327-333.
  7. ↑ Bozsik, András; González-Ruiz, Ramón; Lara, B. Hurtado (2009). "Distribution of the Chrysoperla carnea complex in southern Spain (Neuroptera: Chrysopidae)". Proceedings of the 7th International Symposium "Natural Resources and Sustainable Development". Analele Universităţii din Oradea. Fascicula: Protecţia mediului. 14: 71–78. Retrieved 2022-01-21.
  8. 1 2 3 4 T. S. Bellows; T. W. Fisher (1999). Handbook of biological control: principles and applications of biological control. Academic Press. pp. 418–. ISBN   978-0-12-257305-7 . Retrieved 21 January 2011.
  9. ↑ Amarasekare, Kaushalya G.; Shearer, Peter W. (1 October 2013). "Life History Comparison of Two Green Lacewing Species Chrysoperla johnsoni and Chrysoperla carnea (Neuroptera: Chrysopidae)". Environmental Entomology. 42 (5): 1079–1084. doi: 10.1603/EN13070 . PMID   24331618.
  10. ↑ Hoffmann, M.P. and Frodsham, A.C. (1993) Natural Enemies of Vegetable Insect Pests. Cooperative Extension, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY. 63 pp.
  11. ↑ Kareim, A.I., 1998. Searching rate and potential of some natural enemies as bio-control agent against the Bemisia tabaci (Homoptera:Aleyrodidae). J. Appl. Entomol., 122: 487–92
  12. ↑ "Suppliers of Beneficial Organisms in North America" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 2008-10-27. Retrieved 2011-01-21.
  13. ↑ Penny, Norman D.; Adams, Phillip A.; Stange, Lionel A. (1997). "Species catalog of the Neuroptera, Megaloptera and Raphidioptera of America north of Mexico". Proceedings of the California Academy of Sciences. Fourth Series. 50: 39–114.
  14. ↑ Wise, K. A. J. (1995). "Records Concerning Biological Control of Insect Pests by Neuropteroidea (Insecta) in New Zealand". Records of the Auckland Institute and Museum . 32: 101–117. ISSN   0067-0464. JSTOR   42906455. Wikidata   Q58677493.
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