In comparison with the legal definition of genocide in the Genocide Convention that has been used in actual litigation,[35]additional scholarly definitions have been used to examine the diverse history of genocide, including those that include cultural and ethnic genocide as per Raphael Lemkin.[36]
Ward Churchill explains denial of genocide in terms of the politics of genocide recognition.[20]Edward S. Herman and Noam Chomsky have argued that the attention given to issues is the product of mass media, as they mention in Manufacturing Consent: "A propaganda system will consistently portray people abused in enemy states as worthy victims, whereas those treated with equal or greater severity by its own government or clients will be unworthy!"[37] Thus, Chomsky views the term genocide as one that is used by those in positions of political power and media prominence against their rivals, but the avoidance of using the term to describe their own actions, past and present.[38] In the latter part of the twentieth century the genocide of Indigenous peoples attracted more attention from the international community including scholars and human rights organizations.[39]
An 1888 drawing of a massacre by Queensland’s police at Skull Hole, Mistake Creek, near Winton, Australia.J. Ross Browne, "Protecting the Settlers." From Browne, "The Coast Rangers: A Chronicle of Events in California," part II: "The Indian Reservation," Harper's New Monthly Magazine 23, no. 135 (August 1861): 313. This image accompanied an article by Browne in which he described the killing of Yuki people at Round Valley, California.
Atrocity rationalization
As per Gregory Stanton, in the last stage of genocide, victims may be blamed for what happened to them. In the fourth phase, they can be dehumanized with hate speech.[40] In many cases, members of Indigenous communities have been described by the dominant society with negative stereotypes for generations.[41]
Oftentimes, Indigenous peoples have been described with accounts of generalized practices like cannibalism.[42][43][44][45][46][47][48][49] Historian David Stannard writes: "...the conquering Europeans were purposefully and systematically dehumanizing the people they were exterminating".[50] Indigenous peoples have been dehumanized in accounts of Western scholars such as Juan Gines de Sepulveda to justify their slavery, oppression and even extermination. Controversial accounts of these peoples circulated in Europe in translations of letters by Christopher Columbus.[51] Sepulveda used references to the Bible and Aristotle to depict Native Americans as natural slaves.[52]
Australian Professor Henry Reynolds says that many genocide scholars have named Tasmania in their lists of legitimate case studies. He claims that Jews were targeted "because they were not human, just as the Tasmanian Aborigines were hunted to death for the same reason".[53]
According to Professor Robert K. Hitchcock, Indigenous peoples have experienced to human rights violations, massacres, and genocides in many countries in which they reside. He said that: "the destruction of Indigenous peoples and their cultures has been a policy of many of the world's governments, although most government spokespersons argue that the disappearance or disruption of Indigenous societies was not purposeful but rather occurred inadvertently."[54]
Leo Kuper has described denial as a routine defense: "One of the consequences of the adoption of the Genocide Convention is that denial has become a routine defense. This is intimately related to its present recognition as an international crime with potentially significant sanctions by way of punishment, claims for reparation, and restitution of territorial rights... Denial by the oblivion of indifference has also been the fate of many hunting and gathering groups and other Indigenous peoples."[55]
According to professors James V. Fenelon and Clifford E. Trafzer, the historical record is clear: "Euro-American people and governments have committed genocide worldwide against Indigenous peoples...." But many scholars have denied the genocide of Indigenous peoples in the context of the invasion of what would be known as America. Meanwhile, Indigenous peoples "have long interpreted the invasion of America as genocide."[56] According to Professor Laurelyn Whitt, the vast majority of North American scholars deny that genocide has occurred on the North American continent during the course of its colonization by Europeans. Meanwhile, genocide scholars outside of North America have mentioned it repeatedly.[25]
Colin Leach and others studied a large number of cases of mass violence and genocide in a context of European colonialism, and found that perpetrator groups denied their group’s responsibility, showed low levels of collective guilt, and had low support for reparation policies.[57]
Historian Howard Zinn claimed that in American history textbooks, America's history of abuse against Indigenous peoples is mostly ignored, or presented from the point of view of the state.[58] In his 2003 work, Professor Elazar Barkan claimed that Indigenous genocide has not been given a place in the dominant version of history, particularly in the history of the United States: "Only wide recognition of Indigenous destruction as genocide will acknowledge such opinion as denial. At present, these are more likely uninformed opinions."[59]
Historian Walter L. Hixson says that settler societies such as the United States and Australia deny and distort the history of the violent dispossession of the Indigenous peoples.[60]
Adam Jones said that there is a denialist position on the genocide of Indigenous peoples in the informed sectors of the whole of the Americas. For example, Professor Alexander Bielakowski of the University of Findlay said that "if [it] was the plan" to "wipe out the American Indians ... the US did a damn poor job following through with it." British historian Michael Burleigh questions the disappearance of Indigenous peoples since they are running multi-million dollar casinos.[10] Jones has said that the historical revisionism has been so thorough that in some cases the Americas have been depicted as empty of people at the time of the beginning of European colonization, when in fact the majority of the Indigenous population died during the colonization process.[61]
Historian Andres Resendez has written a book called "The Other Slavery: The Uncovered Story of Indian Enslavement in America" in which he argues that the slavery of Indigenous peoples in the Americas has been "almost completely erased from our historical memory". He compares the thousands of books on African slavery compared to a couple of dozen books specialized on Indigenous slavery. One of the reasons he gives to explain this erasure is that African slavery was legal, so there are many records and documents that provide evidence and data about it, whereas Indigenous slavery was largely illegal, so it is not on official records like bills of sale, wills and ship manifests as in the case of African slavery. The slavery of Indigenous peoples took various forms across time and territory, for example in the form of peonage or the enslavement of prisoners of just wars. Furthermore, most Indigenous nations lost almost all of their ancestral homeland whereas many African nations did not.[62]
David Stannard wrote on the 500 anniversary (1992) of the beginning of colonization of the Americas about denial of atrocities: "Expressions of horror and condemnation over ethnic cleansing in Bosnia and Herzegovina routinely appear on the same newspaper page or television news show as reports of the latest festivities surrounding the Columbian quincentennial. Bosnians and Croatians are worthy victims. The native peoples of the Americas never have been. But of late, American and European denials of culpability for the most thoroughgoing genocide in the history of the world have assumed a new guise."[63] Stannard also interpreted an essay[64] by author Christopher Hitchens, saying that Hitchens was supporting social Darwinism.[65]
Encomienda in Codex KingsboroughEnslaved natives with a load of rubber weighing 75 kilos; they have journeyed 100 kilometers with no food.
Stannard offers the hypothetical scenario of 1940s Germans making similar statements if they had talked in such a way about Jews after World War II (as Hitchens and others talk about Native Americans) to compare the preponderance of the Holocaust vis-a-vis Native American genocide.[66] Stannard in his essay concludes that the Holocaust has gained a prominent position in the public eye, gathering the attention of the international community, but even though he recognizes the scale and tragedy of the atrocity, he warns the West to not ignore the atrocities in the Western hemisphere.[67]
According to the New York Times, Lynne V. Cheney, former chair of the National Endowment for the Humanities, and a group of scholars had a dispute over Mrs. Cheney's rejection of a television project celebrating the 500th anniversary of Christopher Columbus's discovery of the New World. Mrs. Cheney said the proposal's use of the word "genocide" in connection with Columbus was a problem: "We might be interested in funding a film that debated that issue," she said, "but we are not about to fund a film that asserts it. Columbus was guilty of many sins, but he was not Hitler."[68]
According to a 2016-2018 survey, "only 36% of Americans almost certainly believe that the United States is guilty of committing genocide against Native Americans." Indigenous author Michelle A. Stanley writes that "Indigenous genocide is largely denied, erased, relegated to the distant past, or presented as inevitable". She writes that Indigenous genocide is depicted broadly, without touching on the pattern of a series of separate genocides against multiple distinct tribal nations.[69] The inevitability of genocide displaces agency from people to exogenic forces such as "providence, fate and nature". This posture seeks to absolve perpetrators from responsibility of the destruction of Indigenous nations.
Academic Susan Cameron wrote: "Today, textbooks throughout the country continue to ignore or minimize the brutal treatment of Native peoples, the mass killings and persecutions, the displacement, and the continued struggles in tribal communities".[70]
In Paraguay and Brazil, genocide scholar Leo Kuper says that genocide has been denied on the basis of alleged lack of intent to destroy.[71] The case of the Ache in Paraguay has been legally determined to be a case of political persecution, not genocide as per David Stannard.[72]
In Guatemala there has been debate over accusations of genocide, and instead calling the conflict civil war in the case of Guatemala, even though the Guatemalan Truth Commission has reported genocide.[73][74][75]
In Argentina, the Conquest of the Desert had been interpreted in war terms, silencing the fact of Indigenous genocide.[76][77] In the case of the Napalmi massacre, a judge concluded that the massacre took place in a context of genocide.[78][79] According to Walter Delrio and others, "...the state still denies the existence of genocide and the existence of crimes against humanity with respect to Indigenous peoples."[80]
According to Nadia Rubaii, the mass atrocities in Latin America have been less visible internationally for three reasons. Victim groups have frequently been attacked for their ideological or political differences, leading the international community to consider such atrocities as domestic political issues. Second, perpetrators who damage ecosystems and means of subsistence argue that they are seeking economic development for common benefit and deny the intention to inflict any harm. Finally, if there is academic attention to the topic, it is documented in Spanish, and is not available in English.[81]
American Progress, by John Gast 1872. Columbia escorts Europeans as they invade Indigenous nations, clearing native peoples and animals.
Benjamin Madley has described the atrocities against Indigenous peoples in California as genocide,[82][83][84][85] as does Mohamed Adhikari,[86] and historian Brendan Lindsay.[87] Benjamin Madley claims that there is denial of atrocities: "Justice demands that even long after the perpetrators have vanished, we document the crimes that they and their advocates have too often concealed, denied, or suppressed."[88]
Despite the well documented evidence of the widespread atrocities of the California genocide, the social science and history textbooks approved by the California Department of Education ignored the history of this genocide.[89][90][91] Robert K. Hitchcock says that during the California genocide, "California state legislators, administrators, Indian agents, and townspeople denied that a genocide was happening."[1]
Rita K. Dhamoon has critiqued the Canadian Museum for Human Rights (CMHR) including the centrality of the Holocaust in the museum, framing residential schools as assimilationist and not genocidal, and denial of the genocidal nature of settler colonialism.[101] The CMHR opened in 2014 receiving criticism after the museum would not use the term genocide to describe the history of colonialism in Canada. In 2019, the museum reversed its policy, and officially recognizes genocide of Indigenous peoples in Canada in its content.[102]
In 2022, the Canadian government announced that it would pay C$31.5 billion to reform the foster care system and compensate Indigenous families for its deficiencies.[112]Cindy Blackstock, director of the First Nations Child and Family Caring Society of Canada, said the forced transfers of children are a result of discrimination in government policy and inequitable provision of government services.[113][114][115] A truth commission report found that Canadian governments and churches pursued policies of cultural genocide throughout the 20th century.[116] The government has acknowledged the overrepresentation of Indigenous children in the foster care system.[117]
Scouts Canada has issued an apology for "its role in the eradication of First Nation, Inuit and Metis people for more than a century".[118]
The Herero genocide is described as the first genocide of the 20th century, and politicians in Germany[who?] have said that there was a culture of denial.[119][120][121][122][123]
Australia
Between 1838 and 1931, Aboriginal prisoners held on Rottnest Island, Australia were held in deplorable conditions and subjected to cruel and inhumane treatment.
During the colonization of Australia, the Indigenous Australian population experienced the Australian frontier wars in which there was conflict over territory. Massacres and mass poisonings have also been carried out against Indigenous people.[124] The Bringing Them Home report highlighted the abuse committed against Australian Indigenous peoples by forceful removal of children from Indigenous families in what is called Stolen Generations.[125] Nonetheless, former Prime Minister John Howard refused to apologize in the Motion of Reconciliation, claiming that the program had no genocidal intent.[126][127][128] A scholar that denied genocide in Australia is Keith Windshuttle, who was editor of Quadrant magazine, which produced material criticizing the report.[10] Former Tasmanian Premier Ray Groom said that "there had been no killing in the island state".[129] Dr. Gary Jones, a former labour minister in Australia, has portrayed colonialism as a gift to Indigenous nations. Australian Aboriginal senator Jana Stewart, called such views a denial of First Nations' historical experiences.[130]
In Australia, there are ongoing debates about the interpretation of history, called History Wars, for example, the calling of Australia's national myth as an invasion or settlement.[131][132][127][129][133] The near-destruction of Tasmania's Aboriginal population has been described as an act of genocide by scholars including, Mohamed Adhikari, Benjamin Madley, Ashley Riley Sousa, Robert K. Hitchcock and Thomas E. Koperski.[134][84][135][136]
Historian Jurgen Zimmerer has written that there is denial of genocide of the Aborigines by Australian conservatives. Historian Dirk Moses says that in Australia there were many cultural-linguistic Indigenous groups, so there was not one single genocidal event by the colonizing perspective, but multiple ones: "...many genocides took place in Australia".[137] According to South African historian Colin Tatz, in the 1990s in spite of the apologies and admissions about the past, there were denialists in Australia, such as Kenneth Minogue, Ken Maddock and Ron Brunton and also politicians including John Howard, John Herron, Peter Howson, Wayne Goss, Ray Groom and Bill Hayden. Former Premier Goss insisted on the removal of words as "invasion" and "resistance" from school texts.[138]
According to Hannah Baldry there was ongoing denial: "The Australian Government appears to have long suffered a form of 'denialism' that has consistently deprived the country's Aboriginal population of acknowledgment of the crimes perpetrated against their ancestors."[139]
Many countries in Europe have laws against Holocaust denial[142] but there are no known laws against Indigenous genocide denial. In Canada, some lawmakers [who?] want to criminalize the denial of genocide in residential schools.[143]
Anderson, Gary Clayton. 2005. The Conquest of Texas: Ethnic Cleansing in the Promised Land 1820–1875. Norman: University of Oklahoma Press. ISBN978-0-806-13698-1.
Barta, Tony, “Relations of Genocide: Land and Lives in the Colonization of Australia,” in Isidor Wallimann and Michael N. Dobkowski, eds., Genocide and the Modern Age: Etiology and Case Studies of Mass Death (New York: Greenwood Press, 1987), pp.237–251;
Barta, Tony (2008). "With Intent to Deny: On Colonial Intentions and Genocide Denial". Journal of Genocide Research. 10 (1): 111–119.
"Introduction. By Jeff Benvenuto, Andrew Woolford, and Alexander Laban Hinton. Colonial Genocide in Indigenous North America". Colonial Genocide in Indigenous North America. Duke University Press. 2020. pp.1–26. doi:10.1515/9780822376149-002. ISBN9780822376149. S2CID243002850.
Bischoping, Katherine; Fingerhut, Natalie (14 July 2008). "Border Lines: Indigenous Peoples in Genocide Studies". Canadian Review of Sociology. 33 (4): 481–506. doi:10.1111/j.1755-618X.1996.tb00958.x.
Chomsky, Noam (3 September 2010). "Genocide Denial with a Vengeance: Old and New Imperial Norms". Monthly Review. 62 (4): 16–20. doi:10.14452/MR-062-04-2010-08_3.
Churchill, Ward (January 2003). "An American holocaust? The structure of denial". Socialism and Democracy. 17 (1): 25–75. doi:10.1080/08854300308428341. S2CID143631746.
Cook, Anna (2016). "A politics of Indigenous voice: reconciliation, felt knowledge and settler denial". The Canadian Journal of Native Studies. 36 (2): 69–80. ProQuest1938073834.
Cook, Anna (2017). "Intra-American Philosophy in Practice: Indigenous Voice, Felt Knowledge, and Settler Denial". The Pluralist. 12 (1): 74–84. doi:10.5406/pluralist.12.1.0074. S2CID151807002.
Fenelon, James V.; Trafzer, Clifford E. (January 2014). "From Colonialism to Denial of California Genocide to Misrepresentations: Special Issue on Indigenous Struggles in the Americas". American Behavioral Scientist. 58 (1): 3–29. doi:10.1177/0002764213495045. S2CID145377834.
Hennebel, Ludovic, and Thomas Hochmann (eds), Genocide Denials and the Law (2011), ISBN 9780199738922https://doi.org/10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199738922.001.0001
Hinton, Alexander Laban (2014). Hidden Genocides: Power, Knowledge, Memory. Rutgers University Press. ISBN978-0-8135-6162-2. JSTOR j.ctt5hjdfm.
Hitchcock, Robert K.; Twedt, Tara M. (2004). "Chapter 13 Physical and Cultural Genocide of Indigenous Peoples". In Totten, Samuel; Parsons, William S. (eds.). Century of genocide: critical essays and eyewitness accounts. (3rded.). New York: Routledge. ISBN978-0-415-94429-8.
Hochschild, Adam (1998). King Leopold's Ghost: A Story of Greed, Terror, and Heroism in Colonial Africa. Pan Macmillan. ISBN0-330-49233-0.
Kiernan, Ben (June 2002). "Cover-up and Denial of Genocide: Australia, the USA, East Timor, and the Aborigines". Critical Asian Studies. 34 (2): 163–192. doi:10.1080/14672710220146197. S2CID146339164.
Kuper, Leo (1991). "When Denial Becomes Routine". Social Education. 55 (2): 121–23. ERICEJ427728.
Lemarchand, Rene (2011). Forgotten Genocides: Oblivion, Denial, and Memory. University of Pennsylvania Press. ISBN978-0-8122-2263-0. JSTOR j.ctt3fhnm9.
Mamdani, Mahmood (1996). Citizen and Subject: Contemporary Africa and the Legacy of Late Colonialism. Princeton University Press. ISBN978-0-691-02793-7.
Manne, Robert (Ed.) (2003). "Revisionism and Denial," Whitewash: On Keith Windshuttle's Fabrication of Aboriginal History (Melbourne: Black Inc.), 337–370.
Manne, Robert. (2001). Quarterly Essay: In Denial—the Stolen Generations and the Right. Melbourne: Morry Schwartz, Black Inc., 113 pp.
Moses, A.Dirk (October 2002). "Conceptual blockages and definitional dilemmas in the 'racial century': genocides of indigenous peoples and the Holocaust". Patterns of Prejudice. 36 (4): 7–36. doi:10.1080/003132202128811538. S2CID145222840.
Moses, A. Dirk (2003) "Revisionism and Denial," in Robert Manne, ed., Whitewash: On Keith Windshuttle's Fabrication of Aboriginal History (Melbourne: Black Inc.), 337–370.
Panich, Lee M.; Schneider, Tsim D. (October 2019). "Categorical Denial: Evaluating Post-1492 Indigenous Erasure in the Paper Trail of American Archaeology". American Antiquity. 84 (4): 651–668. doi:10.1017/aaq.2019.54. S2CID203352706.
Rubaii, Nadia M., Sebastián Lippez-De Castro, y Susan Appe. 2019. «Indigenous peoples as victims of past and current genocides: an essential topic for the public administration curriculum in Latin America». Opera, n.º 25 (June):29-54. https://doi.org/10.18601/16578651.n25.03.
Smith, R. W. (2014). Genocide Denial and Prevention. Genocide Studies International, 8(1), 102–109. JSTOR26985995
Slocum, Melissa Michal (30 December 2018). "Introduction: There Is No Question of American Indian Genocide". Transmotion. 4 (2): 1–30. doi:10.22024/UniKent/03/tm.651.
Synott, John P. (1993). "Genocide and Cover-up Practices of the British Colonial System Against Australian Aborigines, 1788–1992". Internet on the Holocaust and Genocide: 44–46:15–16.
Tatz, Colin M. (2003). With intent to destroy: reflecting on genocide. New York, NY: Verso.
Trouillot, Michel-Rolph. (1995). Silencing the past: power and the production of history. Boston, Massachusetts: Beacon Press.
Whitt, Laurelyn, & Clarke, Alan W. (2019). North American Genocide Denial. In North American Genocides: Indigenous Nations, Settler Colonialism, and International Law (pp.8–25). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. doi:10.1017/9781108348461.002
Indigenous peoples are the descendants of the earliest known inhabitants of a territory that has been colonized. Indigenous peoples have endured domination and control by a colonial mainstream society. Indigenous peoples have different cultures and languages from the ones of the dominant colony, specially in terms of their ancestral relation to the land in question, and their dependence on it for their cultural and material continuity. The term Indigenous lacks a single, authoritative definition and can be used to describe a variety of peoples and cultures. In its modern context, the term Indigenous was first used by Europeans, who used it to differentiate the Indigenous peoples of the Americas from the European settlers of the Americas, as well as from the sub-Saharan Africans the settlers enslaved and brought to the Americas by force. The term may have first been used in this context by Sir Thomas Browne in 1646, who stated "and although in many parts thereof there be at present swarms of Negroes serving under the Spaniard, yet were they all transported from Africa, since the discovery of Columbus; and are not indigenous or proper natives of America."
During the Age of Discovery, a large scale colonization of the Americas, involving a number of European countries, took place primarily between the late 15th century and the early 19th century. The Norse had explored and colonized areas of Europe and the North Atlantic, colonizing Greenland and creating a short term settlement near the northern tip of Newfoundland circa 1000 AD. However, the later colonization by the European powers involving the continents of North America and South America is arguably more well-known.
Genocide denial is the attempt to deny or minimize the scale and severity of an instance of genocide. Denial is an integral part of genocide and includes the secret planning of genocide, propaganda while the genocide is going on, and destruction of evidence of mass killings. According to genocide researcher Gregory Stanton, denial "is among the surest indicators of further genocidal massacres".
A settler is a person who has immigrated to an area and established a permanent residence there.
Population figures for the Indigenous peoples of the Americas prior to European colonization have been difficult to establish. By the end of the 20th century, most scholars gravitated toward an estimate of around 50 million, with some historians arguing for an estimate of 100 million or more.
David Edward Stannard is an American historian and Professor of American Studies at the University of Hawaii. He is particularly known for his book American Holocaust, in which he argues that European colonization of the Americas after the arrival of Christopher Columbus resulted in some of the largest series of genocides in history.
European colonialism and colonization is the policy or practice of acquiring full or partial political control over other societies and territories, founding a colony, occupying it with settlers, and exploiting it economically. For example, colonial policies, such as the type of rule implemented, the nature of investments, and identity of the colonizers, are cited as impacting postcolonial states. Examination of the state-building process, economic development, and cultural norms and mores shows the direct and indirect consequences of colonialism on the postcolonial states.
Indigenous decolonization describes ongoing theoretical and political processes whose goal is to contest and reframe narratives about indigenous community histories and the effects of colonial expansion, cultural assimilation, exploitative Western research, and often though not inherent, genocide. Indigenous people engaged in decolonization work adopt a critical stance towards western-centric research practices and discourse and seek to reposition knowledge within Indigenous cultural practices.
A Little Matter of Genocide: Holocaust and Denial in the Americas 1492 to the Present (1997) is a book which was written by Ward Churchill. A Little Matter of Genocide surveys ethnic cleansing from 1492 to the present. Churchill compares the treatment of North American Indians to historical instances of genocide by communists in Cambodia, Turks against Armenians, and Europeans against the Gypsies, as well as Nazis against the Poles and Jews.
In epidemiology, a virgin soil epidemic is an epidemic in which populations that previously were in isolation from a pathogen are immunologically unprepared upon contact with the novel pathogen. Virgin soil epidemics have occurred with European colonization, particularly when European explorers and colonists brought diseases to lands they conquered in the Americas, Australia and Pacific Islands.
The genocide of Indigenous peoples, colonial genocide, or settler genocide is the elimination of entire communities of Indigenous peoples as a part of the process of colonialism. According to Patrick Wolfe genocide of the native population is especially likely in cases of settler colonialism, with some scholars arguing that settler colonialism is inherently genocidal.
Settler colonialism occurs when colonizers invade and occupy territory to permanently replace the existing society with the society of the colonizers.
Indigenous feminism is an intersectional theory and practice of feminism that focuses on decolonization, Indigenous sovereignty, and human rights for Indigenous women and their families. The focus is to empower Indigenous women in the context of Indigenous cultural values and priorities, rather than mainstream, white, patriarchal ones. In this cultural perspective, it can be compared to womanism in the African-American communities.
The California genocide was a series of systematized killings of thousands of Indigenous peoples of California by United States government agents and private citizens in the 19th century. It began following the American Conquest of California from Mexico, and the influx of settlers due to the California Gold Rush, which accelerated the decline of the Indigenous population of California. Between 1846 and 1873, it is estimated that non-Natives killed between 9,492 and 16,094 California Natives. Hundreds to thousands were additionally starved or worked to death. Acts of enslavement, kidnapping, rape, child separation and forced displacement were widespread. These acts were encouraged, tolerated, and carried out by state authorities and militias.
Settler colonialism in Canada is the continuation and the results of the colonization of the assets of the Indigenous peoples in Canada. As colonization progressed, the Indigenous peoples were subject to policies of forced assimilation and cultural genocide. The policies signed many of which were designed to both allowed stable houses. Governments in Canada in many cases ignored or chose to deny the aboriginal title of the First Nations. The traditional governance of many of the First Nations was replaced with government-imposed structures. Many of the Indigenous cultural practices were banned. First Nation's people status and rights were less than that of settlers. The impact of colonization on Canada can be seen in its culture, history, politics, laws, and legislatures.
The connection between colonialism and genocide has been explored in academic research. According to historian Patrick Wolfe, "[t]he question of genocide is never far from discussions of settler colonialism." Historians have commented that although colonialism does not necessarily directly involve genocide, research suggests that the two share a connection.
American Holocaust: Columbus and the Conquest of the New World is a multidisciplinary book about the indigenous peoples of the Americas and colonial history written by American scholar and historian David Stannard.
This is a select annotated bibliography of scholarly English language books and journal articles about the subject of genocide studies; for bibliographies of genocidal acts or events, please see the See also section for individual articles. A brief selection of English translations of primary sources is included for items related to the development of genocide studies. Book entries may have references to journal articles and reviews as annotations. Additional bibliographies can be found in many of the book-length works listed below; see Further Reading for several book and chapter-length bibliographies. The External links section contains entries for publicly available materials on the development of genocide studies.
Welfare colonialism is a form of colonialism where investments by the colonizer in the native population, ostensibly intended to improve their quality of life, contribute to the dissolution of indigenous institutions thus perpetuating dependency and creating a permanent underclass. Though usage of the term dates from the 1950s, the concept is often associated with anthropologist Robert Paine, who expanded and developed it while observing the failed economic integration of the native population in Northern Canada. In welfare colonialism, subjugated peoples typically remain impoverished despite huge sums invested nominally for their welfare while their standard of living declines. The concept has been used to explain the ongoing poverty and low living standards of native populations in many countries, particularly those that that have been subject to settler colonialism.
Indigenous responses to colonization vary widely depending on the specific group of people, the historical period, the territory, and the colonial state(s) they were interacting with. Indigenous peoples have had agency and some degree of choice in the course of the colonial history. Some employed armed resistance, while others used diplomatic means to negotiate positive outcomes, some used the legal system, and some fled to remote inhospitable or remote territories to try to avoid conflict. Nevertheless, some Indigenous peoples were forced to move to reservations or reductions, others were massacred, others were forced to work in mines, plantations, construction, and domestic work, to name a few. Finally, others were manipulated to detribalize and culturally assimilate into Western-dominated societies. Indigenous peoples have formed alliances with one or more Indigenous or non-Indigenous nations. Overall, the responses of Indigenous peoples to colonialism during this period have been diverse and varied in their effectiveness. Indigenous resistance has a history that is long, complex, and still under development and being written.
References
1 2 3 Hitchcock, Robert K. (2023). "Denial of Genocide of Indigenous People in the United States". In Der Matossian, Bedross (ed.). Denial of genocides in the twenty-first century. [Lincoln]: University of Nebraska Press. pp.33, 35, 36, 43, 44, 46, 47. ISBN978-1-4962-3554-1. OCLC1374189062. Genocide scholars Susan Chavez Cameron and Loan T. Phan see American Indians as having gone through the ten stages of genocide identified by Stanton. Failure to acknowledge genocide has harmful social and psychological impacts on the victims of genocide, and it leaves the perpetrators in positions of power vis-a-vis others in their societies. As Agnieszka Bienczyk-Missala points out, denial or negation relating to mass crimes consists of denying scientifically proven historical facts by deliberately concealing them and spreading false and misleading information. She goes on to say that the consequences of negationism are of ethical, legal, social, and political character.
↑ Hinton, Alexander Laban (2014). Hidden Genocides: Power, Knowledge, Memory. Rutgers University Press. pp.2, 3. ISBN978-0-8135-6162-2. JSTORj.ctt5hjdfm. From Lemarchand's volume, it is clear that what is remembered and what is not remembered is a political choice, producing a dominant narrative that reflects the victor's version of history while silencing dissenting voices. Building on a critical genocide studies approach, this volume seeks to contribute to this conversation by critically examining cases of genocide that have been "hidden" politically, socially, culturally, or historically in accordance with broader systems of political and social power. (p2) ...the U.S. government, for most of its existence, stated openly and frequently that its policy was to destroy Native American ways of life through forced integration, forced removal, and death. An 1881 report of the U.S. commissioner of Indian Affairs on the "Indian question" is indicative of the decades- long policy: "There is no one who has been a close observer of Indian history and the effect of contact of Indians with civilization who is not well satisfied that one of two things must eventually take place, to wit, either civilization or extermination of the Indian. Savage and civilized life cannot live and prosper on the same ground. One of the two must die." (p3)
1 2 3 Fontaine, Theodore (2014). Woolford, Andrew; Benvenuto, Jeff; Laban Hinton, Alexander (eds.). Colonial Genocide in Indigenous North America. Duke University Press. pp.3, 9, 11, 95, 120, 150, 160. doi:10.2307/j.ctv11sn770. ISBN978-0-8223-5763-6. JSTORj.ctv11sn770. As such it is important for the peoples of the United States and Canada to recognize their shared legacies of genocide, which have too often been hidden, ignored, forgotten, or outright denied. (p3) After all, much of North America was swindled from Indigenous peoples through the mythical but still powerful Doctrine of Discovery, the perceived right of conquest, and deceitful treaties. Restitution for colonial genocide would thus entail returning stolen territories. (p9) Thankfully a new generation of genocide scholarship is moving beyond these timeworn and irreconcilable divisions. (p11) Variations of the Modoc ordeal occurred elsewhere during the conquest and colonization of Africa, Asia, Australia, and North and South America. Indigenous civilizations repeatedly resisted invaders seeking to physically annihilate them in whole or in part. Many of these catastrophes are known as wars. Yet by carefully examining the intentions and actions of colonizers and their advocates it is possible to reinterpret some of these cataclysms as both genocides and wars of resistance. The Modoc case is one of them (p120). Memory, remembering, forgetting, and denial are inseparable and critical junctures in the study and examination of genocide. Absence or suppression of memories is not merely a lack of acknowledgment of individual or collective experiences but can also be considered denial of a genocidal crime (p150). Erasure of historical memory and modification of historical narrative influence the perception of genocide. If it is possible to avoid conceptually blocking colonial genocides for a moment, we can consider denial in a colonial context. Perpetrators initiate and perpetuate denial (p160).
↑ "Framework of Analysis for Atrocity Crimes: A Tool for Prevention"(PDF). United Nations Office of the Prevention of Genocide. 2014. p.1. The definitions of the crimes can be found in the 1948 Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide, the 1949 Geneva Conventions and their 1977 Additional Protocols, and the 1998 Rome Statute of the International Criminal Court, among other treaties.
↑ Campbell, Bradley (2009). "Genocide as Social Control". Sociological Theory. 27 (2): 150–172. doi:10.1111/j.1467-9558.2009.01341.x. JSTOR40376129. S2CID143902886. ...genocide varies directly with immobility, cultural distance, relational distance, functional independence, and inequality; and it is greater in a downward direction than in an upward or lateral direction. This theory of genocide can be applied to numerous genocides throughout history, and it is capable of ordering much of the known variation in genocide - such as when and where it occurs, how severe it is, and who participates.
1 2 3 Jones, Adam (2010). Genocide: A Comprehensive Introduction. Routledge. pp.208, 230, 791–793. ISBN978-1-136-93797-2.
↑ Totten, Samuel; Hitchcock, Robert K. (2011). Genocide of Indigenous Peoples: A Critical Bibliographic Review. Transaction Publishers. p.2. ISBN978-1-4128-4455-0. In Asia, for example, only one country, the Philippines, has officially adopted the term "Indigenous peoples," and established a law specifically to protect Indigenous peoples' rights. Only two countries in Africa, Burundi and Cameroon, have statements about the rights of Indigenous peoples in their constitutions.
↑ Sengar, Bina; Adjoumani, A. Mia Elise (7 March 2023). Indigenous Societies in the Post-colonial World: Responses and Resilience Through Global Perspectives. Springer Nature. p.318. ISBN978-981-19-8722-9. Indigenous populations are communities that live within, or are attached to, geographically distinct traditional habitats or ancestral territories, and who identify themselves as being part of a distinct cultural group, descended from groups present in the area before modern states were created and current borders defined. They generally maintain cultural and social identities, and social, economic, cultural and political institutions, separate from the mainstream or dominant society or culture.
↑ "Other Voices 2.1 (February 2000), Ward Churchill "Forbidding the "G-Word": Holocaust Denial as Judicial Doctrine in Canada"". www.othervoices.org. Retrieved 12 December 2023. This is by no means an academic consideration. Cumulatively, one result of a half-century of "scholarship" by people like Lipstadt has been the functional devictimization of literally hundreds of indigenous peoples, even as their very existence has been systematically extinguished. Refused moral authority by those better stationed to monopolize it for themselves—and thus unable to command public attention, much less support—a truly staggering number of Native societies have been pushed into oblivion since 1950...Denial of genocide, insofar as it plainly facilitates continuation of the crime, amounts to complicity in it. This is true whether the deniers are neo-Nazis, Jewish exclusivists, renowned international jurists or provincial Canadian judges. Complicity in genocide is, under Article III of the 1948 Convention, tantamount to perpetration of genocide itself.
↑ Rosenbaum, Ron. "The Shocking Savagery of America's Early History". Smithsonian Magazine. Retrieved 15 April 2023. It's a grand drama in which the glimmers of enlightenment barely survive the savagery, what Yeats called "the blood-dimmed tide," the brutal establishment of slavery, the race wars with the original inhabitants that Bailyn is not afraid to call "genocidal," the full, horrifying details of which have virtually been erased.
↑ Gigoux, Carlos (2 January 2022). ""Condemned to Disappear": Indigenous Genocide in Tierra del Fuego". Journal of Genocide Research. 24 (1): 1–22. doi:10.1080/14623528.2020.1853359. ISSN1462-3528. S2CID230565181. Nation state building, competing sovereign claims, the capitalist drive for land and resources fuelled by international market forces and prevalent racial ideologies can be identified as major structural factors that leads to the dispossession of indigenous lands and in many cases to the physical destruction of indigenous peoples. In this context settler colonial studies continues to work towards a theory of settler colonialism.
↑ Bartrop, Paul R. (2012). "Chapter 8. Punitive Expeditions and Massacres, Gippsland, Colorado, and the Question of Genocide". In Moses, A. Dirk (ed.). Genocide and Settler Society: Frontier Violence and Stolen Indigenous Children in Australian History. Vol.6 (1ed.). Berghahn Books. p.194. doi:10.2307/j.ctt9qdg7m. ISBN978-1-57181-411-1. JSTORj.ctt9qdg7m. S2CID265474265. Much colonization proceeded without genocidal conflict ... But the effects of colonial settlement were quite variable, dependent on a variety of factors, such as the number of settlers, the forms of the colonizing economy and competition for productive resources, policies of the colonizing power, and attitudes to intermarriage or concubinage ... Some of the annihilations of indigenous peoples arose not so much by deliberate act, but in the course of what may be described as a genocidal process: massacres, appropriation of land, introduction of diseases, and arduous conditions of labor.
↑ Maybury-Lewis, David (15 August 2002). "Genocide against Indigenous Peoples". In Alexander Laban, Alexander (ed.). Annihilating Difference: The Anthropology of Genocide. University of California Press. p.47. ISBN978-0-520-23029-3. Imperialist genocide against indigenous peoples was thus of two kinds. It was practiced in order to clear lands that invading settlers wished to occupy. It was also practiced as part of a strategy to seize and coerce labor that the settlers could not or would not obtain by less drastic means.
↑ Dunbar-Ortiz, Roxanne (2014). An Indigenous Peoples' History of the United States. Beacon Press. p.9. ISBN978-0-8070-0041-0. Settler colonialism is inherently genocidal in terms of the genocide convention. In the case of the British North American colonies and the United States, not only extermination and removal were practiced but also the disappearing of the prior existence of Indigenous peoples, and this continues to be perpetuated in local histories.
↑ Ginzberg, Eitan (4 September 2020). "Genocide and the Hispanic-American Dilemma". Genocide Studies and Prevention: An International Journal. 14 (2): 122–152. doi:10.5038/1911-9933.14.2.1666. ISSN1911-0359. The testimonies on which Raphael Lemkin relied led him to conclude that the 'radical accumulation' of the causes of oppression, and the physical, psychological, and spiritual impairment of the Indians–war, so-called 'pacification', robbery, enslavement, exploitation, invasions, feelings of worthlessness, political delegitimization, systematic religious conversion, cultural annihilation, uprooting and displacement–overwhelmed the Indians' entire array of self-protective norms and measures, and ultimately broke their spirits.
↑ White, Richard (17 August 2016). "Naming America's Own Genocide". Retrieved 29 March 2023. In defining genocide, Madley relies on the criteria of the United Nations Genocide Convention, which has served as the basis for the genocide trials of defendants from Rwanda and the former Yugoslavia and has been employed at the International Criminal Court in The Hague.
↑ Herman, Edward S.; Chomsky, Noam (1988). Manufacturing Consent: The Political Economy of the Mass Media. Pantheon Books. p.37. ISBN978-0-394-54926-2.
↑ Jones, Adam (2010). Genocide: A Comprehensive Introduction. Routledge. p.224. ISBN978-1-136-93797-2.
↑ Stanton, Gregory (2020). "The Ten Stages of Genocide". Genocide Watch. Archived from the original on 14 May 2020. Phase 4. One group denies the humanity of the other group. Members of it are equated with animals, vermin, insects or diseases. Dehumanization overcomes the normal human revulsion against murder. Phase 10. During and after genocide, lawyers, diplomats, and others who oppose forceful action often deny that these crimes meet the definition of genocide. They call them euphemisms like "ethnic cleansing" instead. They question whether intent to destroy a group can be proven, ignoring thousands of murders. They overlook deliberate imposition of conditions that destroy part of a group. They claim that only courts can determine whether there has been genocide, demanding "proof beyond a reasonable doubt", when prevention only requires action based on compelling evidence.
↑ Hitchcock, Robert K.; Twedt, Tara M. (1997). "Chapter 13 Physical and Cultural Genocide of Indigenous Peoples". In Totten, Samuel; Parsons, William S. (eds.). Century of genocide: critical essays and eyewitness accounts. Internet Archive (3rded.). New York: Routledge. pp.353, 362. ISBN978-0-415-94429-8. Most states, along with the United Nations, have been reluctant to criticize individual nations for their actions on the pretense that this would constitute a violation of sovereignty. They have also tended to accept government denials of genocides at face value. As a result, genocidal actions continue.
↑ Tracey Banivanua-Mar (2008) “A thousand miles of cannibal lands”: imagining away genocide in the re-colonization of West Papua, Journal of Genocide Research, 10:4, 583-602, DOI: 10.1080/14623520802447743
↑ Whitehead, Neil L. (1984). "Carib cannibalism. The historical evidence". Journal de la société des américanistes. 70 (1): 69–87. doi:10.3406/jsa.1984.2239. JSTOR24606255.
↑ Rebecca Earle, The Body of the Conquistador: Food, race, and the Colonial Experience in Spanish America, 1492–1700. New York: Cambridge University Press 2012, pp. 123–124.
↑ Brantlinger, Patrick (2011). Taming Cannibals: Race and the Victorians (1ed.). Cornell University Press. p.1. ISBN978-0-8014-5019-8. JSTOR10.7591/j.ctt7zgmt. Dark Vanishings (2003) analyzed the pervasive discourse of blaming the victim that treated many indigenous populations as causing their own extinction. Savagery was supposedly a principal cause; besides warfare, savages practiced infanticide, widow strangling, and cannibalism, all held to be self-exterminating customs. It was frequently also asserted that many or perhaps all 'primitive races' were doomed by the forward march of 'the white man' and 'civilization'.
↑ Stannard, David E. (1993). American Holocaust: the conquest of the New World. Internet Archive. New York: Oxford University Press. p.218. ISBN978-0-19-508557-0. If the assertions of Ortiz and others regarding the habits of the Indians were fabrications, they were not fabrications without design. From the Spaniards' enumerations of what they claimed were the disgusting food customs of the Indians (including cannibalism, but also the consumption of insects and other items regarded as unfit for human diets) to the Indians' supposed nakedness and absence of agriculture, their sexual deviance and licentiousness, their brutish ignorance, their lack of advanced weaponry and iron, and their irremediable idolatry, the conquering Europeans were purposefully and systematically dehumanizing the people they were exterminating.
↑ Fernández-Santamaria, José A. (1975). "Juan Ginés de Sepúlveda on the Nature of the American Indians". The Americas. 31 (4): 434–451. doi:10.2307/980012. JSTOR980012. S2CID147379509.
↑ "Chapter 5. Genocide in Tasmania?". Genocide and Settler Society: Frontier Violence and Stolen Indigenous Children in Australian History. Vol.6 (1ed.). Berghahn Books. 2012. p.128. doi:10.2307/j.ctt9qdg7m. ISBN978-1-57181-411-1. JSTORj.ctt9qdg7m. S2CID265474265. This is equally true of genocide-in two ways. For all individual German to kill a Jew or a Gypsy, just because of the race of the victim, is an act of genocide. But to accuse the machinery of State under which such killings took place as an act of policy requires proof that this is their aim. There is ample proof that this was the aim of the "Final Solution". Jews were to be killed because they were not human, just as the Tasmanian Aborigines were hunted to death for the same reason.
↑ Zinn, Howard (2005). A People's History of the United States. Internet Archive. HarperPerennial Modern Classics. ISBN978-0-06-083865-2. From first grade to graduate school, I was given no inkling that the landing of Christopher Columbus in the New World initiated a genocide, in which the indigenous population of Hispaniola was annihilated. Or that this was just the first stage of what was presented as a benign expansion of the new nation (Louisiana "Purchase," Florida "Purchase," Mexican "Cession"), but which involved the violent expulsion of Indians, accompanied by unspeakable atrocities, from every square mile of the continent, until there was nothing to do with them but herd them into reservations. (Afterword)
↑ Barkan, Elazar (2003). "Chapter 6. Genocides of Indigenous Peoples". In Gellately, Robert; Kiernan, Ben (eds.). The specter of genocide: mass murder in historical perspective. Internet Archive. New York: Cambridge University Press. pp.131, 138–139. ISBN978-0-521-82063-9. The United States had its own long-standing boarding schools for Native American children with a similar extent of abuse. However, the term Education for Extinction is yet to capture public attention as a human rights issue. The American indigenous dilemma is far less central to U.S. mainstream politics than in any of the other ex-British colonies. The notion of genocide, while warranted as much or more than in those other countries, is still confined to radical writers. It is intriguing, indeed, that no mainstream American historians have written about the fate of the Native Americans as genocide. (p131) Thus, the European guilt was at least a collective myopia, a deep failure to acknowledge the equality of indigenous people and the vast number and varied array of atrocities and genocides inflicted upon them. More likely this has been a willful denial of responsibility and guilt, hiding behind the structural explanation of biological agents. It is time to reverse course and acknowledge the responsibility and extent of the destruction purposefully inflicted by colonialism, although not upon all indigenous peoples, and not in similar fashion. (p138-139)
↑ Hixson, Walter L. (5 December 2013). American Settler Colonialism: A History (1sted.). New York: Springer. pp.8, 11, 12, 62. ISBN978-1-137-37426-4. Historical distortion and denial are endemic to settler colonies. In order for the settler colony to establish a collective usable past, legitimating stories must be created and persistently affirmed as a means of naturalizing a new historical narrative. A national mythology displaces the indigenous past...Becoming the indigene required not only cleansing of the land, either through killing or removing, but sanitizing the historical record as well.
↑ Jones, Adam (2008). Crimes Against Humanity: a Beginner's Guide. Oxford: Oneworld. p.33. ISBN9781851686018. Through a devastating combination of genocidal massacre, disease, malnutrition, and slave labor, perhaps ninety-five percent of the indigenous population of the Americas was wiped out following the arrival of Spanish, Portuguese, British, French, Danish, Dutch, and Russian forces. In some places, such as Hispaniola (present-day Haiti and the Dominican Republic), the obliteration of the native population – partly purposive, partly unexpected via infectious disease – was nearly total. The killing was rationalized by myths of civilizational superiority and the inevitability of indigenous peoples' disappearance. Sometimes the historical revisionism was so radical as to depict colonized territories as virgin lands, effectively free of indigenous populations at the time of Western 'discovery'.
↑ Stannard, David E. (1992). "Genocide in the Americas". The Nation. 255 (12): 430–434.
↑ Hitchens, Christopher (19 October 1992). "Minority Report". The Nation. Vol.255, no.12.
↑ Stannard, David (2009). Rosenbaum, Alan S; Charny, Israel W (eds.). Is the Holocaust Unique?: Perspectives on Comparative Genocide. Abingdon, England: Routledge. p.298. doi:10.4324/9780429495137. ISBN978-0-8133-3686-2. To Hitchens, anyone who refused to join him in celebrating with "great vim and gusto" the annihilation of the native peoples of the Americas was (in his words) self-hating, ridiculous, ignorant, and sinister. People who regard critically the genocide that was carried out in America's past, Hitchens continued, are simply reactionary since such grossly inhuman atrocities "happen to be the way history is made". And thus "to complain about them is as empty as complaint about climatic, geological or tectonic shift". Moreover, he added, such violence is worth glorifying since it more often than not has been for the long-term betterment of humankind, as in the United States today, where the extermination of the Native Americans has brought about "a nearly boundless epoch of opportunity and innovation".
↑ Stannard, David (2009). Rosenbaum, Alan S; Charny, Israel W (eds.). Is the Holocaust Unique?: Perspectives on Comparative Genocide. Abingdon, England: Routledge. p.298. doi:10.4324/9780429495137. ISBN978-0-8133-3686-2. These are, of course, precisely the same sort of retrospective justifications for genocide that would have been offered by the descendants of Nazi storm troopers and SS doctors had the Third Reich ultimately had its way: that is, however distasteful the means, the extermination of the Jews was thoroughly warranted given the beneficial ends that were accomplished. In this light it is worth considering again what the reaction would be in Europe and elsewhere if the equivalent of the actual views of Krauthammer and Schlesinger and Hitchens were expressed today by the respectable press in Germany—but with Jews, not Native Americans, as the people whose historical near-extermination was being celebrated. And there is no doubt whatsoever that if that were to happen, alarm bells announcing a frightening and unparalleled postwar resurgence of German neo-Nazism would, quite justifiably, be going off immediately throughout the world.
↑ Stannard, David (2009). Rosenbaum, Alan S; Charny, Israel W (eds.). Is the Holocaust Unique?: Perspectives on Comparative Genocide. Abingdon, England: Routledge. pp.330–331. doi:10.4324/9780429495137. ISBN978-0-8133-3686-2. The willful maintenance of public ignorance regarding the genocidal and racist horrors against indigenous peoples that have been and are being perpetrated by many nations of the Western Hemisphere, including the United States—which contributes to the construction of a museum to commemorate genocide only if the killing occurred half a world away—is consciously aided and abetted and legitimized by the actions of the Jewish uniqueness advocates we have been discussing....and so all people of conscience must be on guard against Holocaust deniers who, in many cases, would like nothing better than to see mass violence against Jews start again. By that same token, however, as we consider the terrible history and the ongoing campaigns of genocide against the indigenous inhabitants of the Western Hemisphere...
↑ Kuper, Leo (1982). Genocide: its political use in the twentieth century. Internet Archive. New Haven: Yale University Press. pp.33–34. ISBN978-0-300-02795-2. In contemporary extra-judicial discussions of allegations of genocide, the question of intent has become a controversial issue, providing a ready basis for denial of guilt.
↑ Pérez, Pilar. La Conquista del desierto y los estudios sobre genocidio. Recorridos, preguntas y debates. Mem. am. [online]. 2019, vol.27, n.2 [cited 2023-09-26], pp.34-51. Available at: <http://www.scielo.org.ar/scielo.php?script=sci_arttext&pid=S1851-37512019000200034&lng=es&nrm=iso>. Epub 01-Dic-2019. ISSN 1851-3751.
↑ Rubaii, N.M., Lippez-De Castro, S. y Appe, S. 2019. Pueblos indígenas como víctimas de los genocidios pasados y actuales: un tema esencial para el currículo de administración pública en América Latina. Opera. 25 (jun. 2019), 29–54. DOI:https://doi.org/10.18601/16578651.n25.03.
↑ Madley, Benjamin (1 August 2008). "California's Yuki Indians: Defining Genocide in Native American History". The Western Historical Quarterly. 39 (3): 303–332. doi:10.1093/whq/39.3.303.
1 2 Madley, Benjamin (2004). "Patterns of frontier genocide 1803–1910: the aboriginal Tasmanians, the Yuki of California, and the Herero of Namibia". Journal of Genocide Research. 6 (2): 167–192. doi:10.1080/1462352042000225930. S2CID145079658.
↑ Madley, Benjamin (2016). An American Genocide: The United States and the California Indian Catastrophe, 1846-1873. New Haven: Yale University Press. pp.11–12. ISBN978-0300181364.
↑ Adhikari, Mohamed (2022). Destroying to Replace: Settler Genocides of Indigenous Peoples. Indianapolis: Hackett Publishing Company. pp.72–115. ISBN978-1647920548.
↑ Lindsay, Brendan C. (March 2015). Murder State: California's Native American Genocide, 1846-1873. University of Nebraska Press. ISBN978-0-8032-6966-8.
↑ Fenelon, James V.; Trafzer, Clifford E. (4 December 2013). "From Colonialism to Denial of California Genocide to Misrepresentations: Special Issue on Indigenous Struggles in the Americas". American Behavioral Scientist. 58 (1): 3–29. doi:10.1177/0002764213495045. S2CID145377834.
↑ MacDonald, David B. (2015). "Canada's history wars: indigenous genocide and public memory in the United States, Australia and Canada". Journal of Genocide Research. 17 (4): 411–431. doi:10.1080/14623528.2015.1096583. S2CID74512843.
↑ Logan, Tricia E. (2014). "Memory, Erasure, and National Myth". In Woolford, Andrew (ed.). Colonial Genocide in Indigenous North America. Duke University Press. p.149. doi:10.2307/j.ctv11sn770. ISBN978-0-8223-5763-6. JSTORj.ctv11sn770. Canada, a country with oft-recounted histories of Indigenous origins and colonial legacies, still maintains a memory block in terms of the atrocities it committed to build the Canadian state. There is nothing more comforting in a colonial history of nation-building than an erasure or denial of the true costs of colonial gains. The comforting narrative becomes the dominant and publicly consumed narrative.
↑ Kaur Dhamoon, Rita (March 2016). "Re-presenting Genocide: The Canadian Museum of Human Rights and Settler Colonial Power". Journal of Race, Ethnicity, and Politics. 1 (1): 5–30. doi:10.1017/rep.2015.4. I contend that the curatorial decision of the CMHR to not use the label of genocide in the title of the core gallery on Indigenous perspectives was specifically a form of interpretive denial.
1 2 Manne, Robert (18 November 2014). "In Denial, The stolen generations and the Right". Quarterly Essay. Retrieved 1 April 2023. ...the Prime Minister of Australia, John Howard, seized his opportunity. He told a commercial radio audience in Melbourne that the revelation that Lowitja O'Donoghue was not stolen was a "highly significant" fact, one, he implied, which vindicated his government's famous denial of the existence of the stolen generations and his even more famous refusal to apologize... It was the magazine Quadrant, however, under the editorship of Padraic McGuinness, that marshalled the troops and galvanised the disparate voices of opposition to Bringing them home into what amounted to a serious and effective political campaign.
1 2 Lemarchand, Rene (2011). Forgotten Genocides: Oblivion, Denial, and Memory. University of Pennsylvania Press. pp.12, 88. doi:10.2307/j.ctt3fhnm9. ISBN978-0-8122-2263-0. JSTORj.ctt3fhnm9. The colonial genocide perpetrated against Aborigines produced within the colonial society a deep and enduring ambiguity about the fate of the original Aborigines and the role of colonists in generating that fate. This ambiguity consisted of a deep-seated moral unease about what had occurred and a culture of denial that was expressed in numerous ways, but most obviously in the myth of inevitable extinction.
↑ Adhikari, Mohamed (2022). Destroying to Replace: Settler Genocides of Indigenous Peoples. Indianapolis: Hackett Publishing Company. p.xxix. ISBN978-1-64792-054-8.
↑ Sousa, Ashley Riley (June 2004). "'They will be hunted down like wild beasts and destroyed!': a comparative study of genocide in California and Tasmania". Journal of Genocide Research. 6 (2): 193–209. doi:10.1080/1462352042000225949. S2CID109131060.
↑ Zimmerer, Jurgen; Kociumbas, Jan (2004). "Colonialism and the Holocaust. Towards an Archaeology of Genocide.". In Moses, A. Dirk (ed.). Genocide and Settler Society: Frontier Violence and Stolen Indigenous Children in Australian History. Berghahn Books. pp.19, 51, 84. ISBN978-1-57181-410-4. In that case, many genocides took place in Australia, rather than being the site of a single genocidal event.(p19) The question of colonial genocide is disturbing, in part because it increases the number of mass murders regarded as genocide, and in part, too, because it calls into question the Europeanization of the globe as a modernizing project. Where the descendants of perpetrators still comprise the majority or a large proportion of the population, and control political life and public discourse, recognition of colonial genocides is even more difficult, as it undermines the image of the past on which national identity is built. Australian conservatives, for example, have difficulties recognizing the genocide of the Aborigines. Former President Bill Clinton can apologize in Africa for the crimes of slavery (his gesture took place outside the USA) while public commemoration of the destruction of the American Indians continues to be denied. (p51) The fact that initially there seemed to be no individualistic kings, queens, priests, warriors, or chiefs with whom the British might negotiate, also helped to create an environment that could support both genocide and its denial. Combined with the absence of foreign nations to dispute British claims, this produced a dangerous scenario where the possibility of pretending that the continent was empty of people was particularly tempting. (p84)
↑ Tatz, Colin M. (2003). With intent to destroy: reflecting on genocide. New York, N.Y: Verso. pp.132, 133. ISBN9781859845509.
This page is based on this Wikipedia article Text is available under the CC BY-SA 4.0 license; additional terms may apply. Images, videos and audio are available under their respective licenses.
