Duplex stainless steel

Last updated May 11, 2024

Duplex stainless steels^[1]^[2]^[3]^[4]^[5] are a family of stainless steels. These are called duplex (or austenitic-ferritic) grades because their metallurgical structure consists of two phases, austenite (face-centered cubic lattice) and ferrite (body centered cubic lattice) in roughly equal proportions. They are designed to provide better corrosion resistance, particularly chloride stress corrosion and chloride pitting corrosion, and higher strength than standard austenitic stainless steels such as type A2/304 or A4/316. The main differences in composition, when compared with an austenitic stainless steel is that the duplex steels have a higher chromium content, 20–28%; higher molybdenum, up to 5%; lower nickel, up to 9% and 0.05–0.50% nitrogen. Both the low nickel content and the high strength (enabling thinner sections to be used) give significant cost benefits. They are therefore used extensively in the offshore oil and gas industry for pipework systems, manifolds, risers, etc. and in the petrochemical industry in the form of pipelines and pressure vessels. In addition to the improved corrosion resistance compared with the 300 series duplex stainless steels also have higher strength. For example, a Type 304 stainless steel has a 0.2% proof strength in the region of 280 MPa (41 ksi), a 22%Cr duplex stainless steel a minimum 0.2% proof strength of some 450 MPa (65 ksi) and a superduplex grade a minimum of 550 MPa (80 ksi).^[6]

Grades of duplex stainless steels

Duplex stainless steels are usually divided into three groups based on their pitting corrosion resistance, characterised by the pitting resistance equivalence number, PREN = %Cr + 3.3 %Mo + 16 %N.^[7]

Standard duplex (PREN range: 28–38): Typically Grade EN 1.4462 (also called 2205). It is typical of the mid-range of properties and is perhaps the most used today
Super-duplex (PREN range: 38–45): Typically grade EN 1.4410 up to so-called hyper duplex grades (PREN: >45) developed later to meet specific demands of the oil and gas as well as those of the chemical industries. They offer a superior corrosion resistance and strength but are more difficult to process because the higher contents of Cr, Mo, N and even W promote the formation of intermetallic phases, which reduce drastically the impact resistance of the steel. Faulty processing will result in poor performance and users are advised to deal with reputable suppliers/processors.^[8] Applications include deepwater offshore oil production.
Lean duplex grades (PREN range: 22–27): Typically grade EN 1.4362, have been developed more recently for less demanding applications, particularly in the building and construction industry. Their corrosion resistance is closer to that of the standard austenitic grade EN 1.4401 (with a plus on resistance to stress corrosion cracking) and their mechanical properties are higher. This can be a great advantage when strength is important. This is the case in bridges, pressure vessels or tie bars.

Chemical compositions

Chemicals composition of grades from EN 10088-1 (2014) Standard are given in the table below:^[9]

Composition by weight (%)
ISO Steel designation	EN Number	UNS equiv^[10]	C, max.	Si	Mn	P, max.	S, max.	N	Cr	Cu	Mo	Ni	Other
X2CrNiN22-2	1.4062	S32202	0.03	≤1.00	≤2.00	0.04	0.010	0.16 to 0.28	21.5 to 24.0	-	≤0.45	1.00 to 2.90	-
X2CrCuNiN23-2-2	1.4669		0.045	≤1.00	1.00 to 3.00	0.04	0.030	0.12 to 0.20	21.5 to 24.0	1.60 to 3.00	≤0.50	1.00 to 3.00	-
X2CrNiMoSi18-5-3	1.4424	S31500	0.03	1.40 to 2.00	1.20 to 2.00	0.035	0.015	0.05 to 0.10	18.0 to 19.0	-	2.5 to 3.0	4.5 to 5.2	-
X2CrNiN23-4	1.4362	S32304	0.03	≤1.00	≤2.00	0.035	0.015	0.05 to 0.20	22.0 to 24.5	0.10 to 0.60	0.10 to 0.60	3.5 to 5.5	-
X2CrMnNiN21-5-1	1.4162	S32101	0.04	≤1.00	4.0 to 6.0	0.040	0.015	0.20 to 0.25	21.0 to 22.0	0.10 to 0.80	0.10 to 0.80	1.35 to 1.90	-
X2CrMnNiMoN21-5-3	1.4482		0.03	≤1.00	4.0 to 6.0	0.035	0.030	0.05 to 0.20	19.5 to 21.5	≤1.00	0.10 to 0.60	1.50 to 3.50	-
X2CrNiMoN22-5-3	1.4462	S31803, S32205	0.03	≤1.00	≤2.00	0.035	0.015	0.10 to 0.22	21.0 to 23.0	-	2.50 to 3.50	4.5 to 6.5	-
X2CrNiMnMoCuN24-4-3-2	1.4662	S31803, S32205	0.03	≤0.70	2.5 to 4.0	0.035	0.005	0.20 to 0.30	23.0 to 25.0	0.10 to 0.80	1.00 to 2.00	3.0 to 4.5
X2CrNiMoCuN25-6-3	1.4507	S32520	0.03	≤0.70	≤2.00	0.035	0.015	0.20 to 0.30	24.0 to 26.0	1.00 to 2.50	3.0 to 4.0	6.0 to 8.0	-
X3CrNiMoN27-5-2	1.4460	S31200	0.05	≤1.00	≤2.00	0.035	0.015	0.05 to 0.20	25.0 to 28.0	-	1.30 to 2.00	4.5 to 6.5	-
X2CrNiMoN25-7-4	1.4410	S32750	0.03	≤1.00	≤2.00	0.035	0.015	0.24 to 0.35	24.0 to 26.0	-	3.0 to 4.5	6.0 to 8.0	-
X2CrNiMoCuWN25-7-4	1.4501	S32760	0.03	≤1.00	≤1.00	0.035	0.015	0.20 to 0.30	24.0 to 26.0	0.50 to 1.00	3.0 to 4.0	6.0 to 8.0	W 0.50 to 1.00
X2CrNiMoN29-7-2	1.4477	S32906	0.03	≤0.50	0.80 to 1.50	0.030	0.015	0.30 to 0.40	28.0 to 30.0	≤0.80	1.50 to 2.60	5.8 to 7.5	-
X2CrNiMoCoN28-8-5-1	1.4658	S32707	0.03	≤0.50	≤1.50	0.035	0.010	0.30 to 0.50	26.0 to 29.0	≤1.00	4.0 to 5.0	5.5 to 9.5	Co 0.50 to 2.00
X2CrNiCuN23-4	1.4655	S32304	0.03	≤1.00	≤2.00	0.035	0.015	0.05 to 0.20	22.0 to 24.0	1.00 to 3.00	0.10 to 0.60	3.5 to 5.5	-

Mechanical properties

Mechanical properties from European Standard EN 10088-3 (2014)^[9] (for product thickness below 160 mm):

Mechanical properties at room temperature of solution-annealed austenitic–ferritic stainless steels
ISO desig.	EN num.	0.2% proof stress, min	Ultimate tensile strength	Elongation, min (%)
X2CrNiN23-4	1.4362	400 MPa (58 ksi)	600 to 830 MPa (87 to 120 ksi)	25
X2CrNiMoN22-5-3	1.4462	450 MPa (65 ksi)	650 to 880 MPa (94 to 128 ksi)	25
X3CrNiMoN27-5-2	1.4460	450 MPa (65 ksi)	620 to 680 MPa (90 to 99 ksi)	20
X2CrNiN22-2	1.4062	380 MPa (55 ksi)	650 to 900 MPa (94 to 131 ksi)	30
X2CrCuNiN23-2-2	1.4669	400 MPa (58 ksi)	650 to 900 MPa (94 to 131 ksi)	25
X2CrNiMoSi18-5-3	1.4424	400 MPa (58 ksi)	680 to 900 MPa (99 to 131 ksi)	25
X2CrMnNiN21-5-1	1.4162	400 MPa (58 ksi)	650 to 900 MPa (94 to 131 ksi)	25
X2CrMnNiMoN21-5-3	1.4482	400 MPa (58 ksi)	650 to 900 MPa (94 to 131 ksi)	25
X2CrNiMnMoCuN24-4-3-2	1.4662	450 MPa (65 ksi)	650 to 900 MPa (94 to 131 ksi)	25
X2CrNiMoCuN25-6-3	1.4507	500 MPa (73 ksi)	700 to 900 MPa (100 to 130 ksi)	25
X2CrNiMoN25-7-4	1.4410	530 MPa (77 ksi)	730 to 930 MPa (106 to 135 ksi)	25
X2CrNiMoCuWN25-7-4	1.4501	530 MPa (77 ksi)	730 to 930 MPa (106 to 135 ksi)	25
X2CrNiMoN29-7-2	1.4477	550 MPa (80 ksi)	750 to 1,000 MPa (109 to 145 ksi)	25
X2CrNiMoCoN28-8-5-1*	1.4658	650 MPa (94 ksi)	800 to 1,000 MPa (120 to 150 ksi)	25

*for thickness ≤ 5 mm (0.20 in)

The minimum yield stress values are about twice as high as those of austenitic stainless steels.

Duplex grades are therefore attractive when mechanical properties at room temperature are important because they allow thinner sections.

475 °C embrittlement

Electron backscatter diffraction map of 128 hrs age hardened duplex stainless steel with the ferrite phase forming the matrix and austenite grains sporadically spread. The ferrite phase volume fraction is 58%.^[11]

EBSD map with austenite grains excluded (white). The scale bar is 500 μm. Colours denote the crystal orientation and are taken from the inverse pole figure at the lower right corner.^[12]

EBSD map with austenite grains excluded (white). The scale bar is 500 μm. Colours denote the crystal orientation and are taken from the inverse pole figure at the lower right corner.Duplex stainless is widely used in the industry because it possesses excellent oxidation resistance but can have limited toughness due to its large ferritic grain size, and they have hardened, and embrittlement tendencies at temperatures ranging from 280 to 500 °C, especially at 475 °C, where spinodal decomposition of the supersaturated solid ferrite solution into Fe-rich nanophase ( ${\acute {a}}$ ) and Cr-rich nanophase ( ${\acute {a}}{\acute {}}$ ), accompanied by G-phase precipitation, occurs,^[13]^[14]^[15] which makes the ferrite phase a preferential initiation site for micro-cracks.^[16]

Heat treatment

Recommended hot forming and annealing/soaking temperatures
UNS No. Grade	EN No.	Hot forming temperature range	Minimum soaking temperature
S32304	1.4362	1,150 to 950 °C (2,100 to 1,740 °F)	980 °C (1,800 °F)
S32205	1.4462	1,230 to 950 °C (2,250 to 1,740 °F)	1,040 °C (1,900 °F)
S32750	1.4410	1,235 to 1,025 °C (2,255 to 1,877 °F)	1,050 °C (1,920 °F)
S32520	1.4507	1,230 to 1,000 °C (2,250 to 1,830 °F)	1,080 °C (1,980 °F)
S32760	1.4501	1,230 to 1,000 °C (2,250 to 1,830 °F)	1,100 °C (2,010 °F)

Duplex stainless steel grades must be cooled as quickly as possible to room temperature after hot forming to avoid the precipitation of intermetallic phases (Sigma phase in particular) which drastically reduce the impact resistance at room temperature as well as the corrosion resistance.^[17]

Alloying elements Cr, Mo, W, Si increase the stability and the formation of intermetallic phases. Therefore, super duplex grades have a higher hot working temperature range and require faster cooling rates than the lean duplex grades.

Applications of duplex stainless steels

Duplex stainless steels are usually selected for their high mechanical properties and good to very high corrosion resistance (particularly to stress corrosion cracking).

Architecture
- Stockholm's waterfront building ^[18]
- Louvre Abu Dhabi ^[19]
- La Sagrada Familia ^[20]
Infrastructure:
- Helix Bridge, Singapore ^[21]
- Cala Galdana bridge ^[22]
- Hong Kong–Zhuhai–Macau bridge and undersea tunnel ^[23]
- sea walls, piers, etc.
- tunnels
Oil and gas:
- a wide range of equipment: flowlines, manifolds, risers, pumps, valves, etc.^[24]
Pulp and paper:
- digesters, pressure vessels, liquor tanks, etc.^[25]
Chemical engineering:
- pressure vessels, heat exchangers, condensers, distillation columns, agitators, marine chemical tankers, etc.^[26]
Water:
- desalination plants, large tanks for water storage, waste water treatment ^[27]
renewable energy: Biogas tanks
Mobility: tramcars and bus frames, tank trucks, iron ore wagons ^[5]
Engineering: pumps, valves, fittings, springs, etc.

Related Research Articles

Stainless steel, also known as inox, corrosion-resistant steel (CRES) and rustless steel, is an alloy of iron that is resistant to rusting and corrosion. It contains iron with chromium and other elements such as molybdenum, carbon, nickel and nitrogen depending on its specific use and cost. Stainless steel's resistance to corrosion results from the 10.5%, or more, chromium content which forms a passive film that can protect the material and self-heal in the presence of oxygen.

Martensitic stainless steel is a type of stainless steel alloy that has a martensite crystal structure. It can be hardened and tempered through aging and heat treatment. The other main types of stainless steel are austenitic, ferritic, duplex, and precipitation hardened.

Carbon steel is a steel with carbon content from about 0.05 up to 2.1 percent by weight. The definition of carbon steel from the American Iron and Steel Institute (AISI) states:

Maraging steels are steels that are known for possessing superior strength and toughness without losing ductility. Aging refers to the extended heat-treatment process. These steels are a special class of very-low-carbon ultra-high-strength steels that derive their strength not from carbon, but from precipitation of intermetallic compounds. The principal alloying element is 15 to 25 wt% nickel. Secondary alloying elements, which include cobalt, molybdenum and titanium, are added to produce intermetallic precipitates. Original development was carried out on 20 and 25 wt% Ni steels to which small additions of aluminium, titanium, and niobium were made; a rise in the price of cobalt in the late 1970s led to the development of cobalt-free maraging steels.

Titanium alloys are alloys that contain a mixture of titanium and other chemical elements. Such alloys have very high tensile strength and toughness. They are light in weight, have extraordinary corrosion resistance and the ability to withstand extreme temperatures. However, the high cost of both raw materials and processing limit their use to military applications, aircraft, spacecraft, bicycles, medical devices, jewelry, highly stressed components such as connecting rods on expensive sports cars and some premium sports equipment and consumer electronics.

A superalloy, or high-performance alloy, is an alloy with the ability to operate at a high fraction of its melting point. Key characteristics of a superalloy include mechanical strength, thermal creep deformation resistance, surface stability, and corrosion and oxidation resistance.

Marine grade stainless alloys typically contain molybdenum to resist the corrosive effects of NaCl or salt in seawater. Concentrations of salt in seawater can vary, and splash zones can cause concentrations to increase dramatically from the spray and evaporation.

In materials science, intergranular corrosion (IGC), also known as intergranular attack (IGA), is a form of corrosion where the boundaries of crystallites of the material are more susceptible to corrosion than their insides.

Austenitic stainless steel is one of the five classes of stainless steel by crystalline structure. Its primary crystalline structure is austenite and it prevents steels from being hardenable by heat treatment and makes them essentially non-magnetic. This structure is achieved by adding enough austenite-stabilizing elements such as nickel, manganese and nitrogen. The Incoloy family of alloys belong to the category of super austenitic stainless steels.

Embrittlement is a significant decrease of ductility of a material, which makes the material brittle. Embrittlement is used to describe any phenomena where the environment compromises a stressed material's mechanical performance, such as temperature or environmental composition. This is oftentimes undesirable as brittle fracture occurs quicker and can much more easily propagate than ductile fracture, leading to complete failure of the equipment. Various materials have different mechanisms of embrittlement, therefore it can manifest in a variety of ways, from slow crack growth to a reduction of tensile ductility and toughness.

The SAE steel grades system is a standard alloy numbering system for steel grades maintained by SAE International.

Alloy steel is steel that is alloyed with a variety of elements in total amounts between 1.0% and 50% by weight to improve its mechanical properties.

Nickel aluminide refers to either of two widely used intermetallic compounds, Ni₃Al or NiAl, but the term is sometimes used to refer to any nickel–aluminium alloy. These alloys are widely used because of their high strength even at high temperature, low density, corrosion resistance, and ease of production. Ni₃Al is of specific interest as a precipitate in nickel-based superalloys, where it is called the γ' (gamma prime) phase. It gives these alloys high strength and creep resistance up to 0.7–0.8 of its melting temperature. Meanwhile, NiAl displays excellent properties such as lower density and higher melting temperature than those of Ni₃Al, and good thermal conductivity and oxidation resistance. These properties make it attractive for special high-temperature applications like coatings on blades in gas turbines and jet engines. However, both these alloys have the disadvantage of being quite brittle at room temperature, with Ni₃Al remaining brittle at high temperatures as well. To address this problem, has been shown that Ni₃Al can be made ductile when manufactured in single-crystal form rather than in polycrystalline form.

Zeron 100 is a super duplex stainless steel developed by Rolled Alloys. The alloy has excellent corrosion resistance combined with high strength. It typically contains 25% chromium and 7% nickel and 3.6% molybdenum along with copper and tungsten additions. Zeron 100 has a 50–50 austenitic–ferritic structure. It also has greater resistance to chloride pitting, crevice corrosion and stress corrosion cracking than exhibited by the standard 300 series stainless steels.

SAF 2205, is a Alleima-owned trademark for a 22Cr duplex (ferritic-austenitic) stainless steel. SAF derives from Sandvik Austenite Ferrite. The nominal chemical composition of SAF 2205 is 22% chromium, 5% nickel, 3.2% molybdenum and other alloying elements such as nitrogen and manganese. The UNS designation for SAF 2205 is S31803/S32205 and the EN steel no. is 1.4462. SAF 2205 or Duplex 2205 is often used as an alternative to expensive 904L stainless steel owing to similar properties but cheaper ingredients. Duplex stainless steel is available in multiple forms like bars, billets, pipes, tubes, sheets, plates and even processed to fittings and flanges.

SAF 2507, is a Alleima-owned trademark for a 25Cr duplex (ferritic-austenitic) stainless steel. The nominal chemical composition of SAF 2507 is 25% chromium, 7% nickel, 4% molybdenum and other alloying elements such as nitrogen and manganese. The UNS designation for SAF 2507 is S32750 and the EN steel no. is 1.4410. SAF derives from Sandvik Austenite Ferrite.

SAE 316L grade stainless steel, sometimes referred to as A4 stainless steel or marine grade stainless steel, is the second most common austenitic stainless steel after 304/A2 stainless steel. Its primary alloying constituents after iron, are chromium, nickel (10–12%) and molybdenum (2–3%), with small (<1%) quantities of silicon, phosphorus & sulfur also present. The addition of molybdenum provides greater corrosion resistance than 304, with respect to localized corrosive attack by chlorides and to general corrosion by reducing acids, such as sulfuric acid. 316L grade is the low carbon version of 316 stainless steel. When cold worked, 316 can produce high yield and tensile strengths similar to Duplex stainless grades.

Ferritic stainless steel forms one of the five stainless steel families, the other four being austenitic, martensitic, duplex stainless steels, and precipitation hardened. For example, many of AISI 400-series of stainless steels are ferritic steels. By comparison with austenitic types, these are less hardenable by cold working, less weldable, and should not be used at cryogenic temperatures. Some types, like the 430, have excellent corrosion resistance and are very heat tolerant.

Duplex stainless steels are a family of alloys with a two-phase microstructure consisting of both austenitic and ferritic phases. They offer excellent mechanical properties, corrosion resistance, and toughness compared to other types of stainless steel. However, duplex stainless steel can be susceptible to a phenomenon known as 475 °C (887 °F) embrittlement or duplex stainless steel age hardening, which is a type of aging process that causes loss of plasticity in duplex stainless steel when it is heated in the range of 250 to 550 °C. At this temperature range, spontaneous phase separation of the ferrite phase into iron-rich and chromium-rich nanophases occurs, with no change in the mechanical properties of the austenite phase. This type of embrittlement is due to precipitation hardening, which makes the material become brittle and prone to cracking.

References

↑ Peckner, Donald; Bernstein, I.M. (1977). "chapter 8". Handbook of Stainless Steels. McGraw Hill. ISBN 9780070491472.
↑ Lacombe, P.; Baroux, B.; Beranger, G. (1990). "chapter 18". Les Aciers Inoxydables. Les Editions de Physique. ISBN 2-86883-142-7.
↑ International Molybdenum Association (IMOA) (2014). Practical Guidelines for the fabrication of Duplex Stainless Steels (PDF). ISBN 978-1-907470-09-7 – via www.imoa.info.
↑ Charles, Jacques (2010). Proceedings of the Duplex Stainless Steel Conference, Beaune (2010). EDP Sciences, Paris. pp. 29–82. Archived from the original on 2022-05-06. Retrieved 2019-10-27.
1 2 International Stainless Steel Forum (2020). "Duplex Stainless Steels" (PDF).
↑ Dr. James Fritz. "A Practical Guide to Using Duplex Stainless Steels". Nickel Institute.
↑ Bristish Stainless Steel Association. "Calculation of Pitting Resistance Equivalent Number (PREN)". bssa.org.uk.
↑ "Knowledge center — Sandvik Materials Technology". www.materials.sandvik. Retrieved 2019-03-25.
1 2 "The standard is available from BSI Shop".
↑ "Stainless steel grades listed in the international standard ISO 15510:2010 Comparative designations of grades with similar composition from other important standards. (listed by type of steel structure and by increasing intermediate 3-digits code of the ISO name)" (PDF). International Stainless Steel Forum. Retrieved 10 March 2023.
↑ Mohamed Koko, A. (2022). In situ full-field characterisation of strain concentrations (deformation twins, slip bands and cracks) (PhD thesis). University of Oxford.
↑ Koko, Abdalrhaman; Elmukashfi, Elsiddig; Becker, Thorsten H.; Karamched, Phani S.; Wilkinson, Angus J.; Marrow, T. James (2022-10-15). "In situ characterisation of the strain fields of intragranular slip bands in ferrite by high-resolution electron backscatter diffraction". Acta Materialia. 239: 118284. doi: 10.1016/j.actamat.2022.118284 . ISSN 1359-6454.
↑ Örnek, Cem; Burke, M. G.; Hashimoto, T.; Engelberg, D. L. (April 2017). "748 K (475 °C) Embrittlement of Duplex Stainless Steel: Effect on Microstructure and Fracture Behavior". Metallurgical and Materials Transactions A. 48 (4): 1653–1665. Bibcode:2017MMTA...48.1653O. doi: 10.1007/s11661-016-3944-2 . ISSN 1073-5623. S2CID 136321604.
↑ Weng, K. L; Chen, H. R; Yang, J. R (2004-08-15). "The low-temperature aging embrittlement in a 2205 duplex stainless steel". Materials Science and Engineering: A. 379 (1): 119–132. doi:10.1016/j.msea.2003.12.051. ISSN 0921-5093.
↑ Beattie, H. J.; Versnyder, F. L. (July 1956). "A New Complex Phase in a High-Temperature Alloy". Nature. 178 (4526): 208–209. Bibcode:1956Natur.178..208B. doi:10.1038/178208b0. ISSN 1476-4687. S2CID 4217639.
↑ Liu, Gang; Li, Shi-Lei; Zhang, Hai-Long; Wang, Xi-Tao; Wang, Yan-Li (August 2018). "Characterization of Impact Deformation Behavior of a Thermally Aged Duplex Stainless Steel by EBSD". Acta Metallurgica Sinica (English Letters). 31 (8): 798–806. doi: 10.1007/s40195-018-0708-6 . ISSN 1006-7191. S2CID 139395583.
↑ International Molybdenum Association (IMOA). "Hot forming and Heat Treatment of Duplex Stainless Steels" (PDF). www.imoa.info.
↑ Euro-Inox. "Innovative Facades in Stainless Steel". Euro-Inox Publication, Building series. Vol. 19. p. 34. ISBN 978-2-87997-372-2.
↑ International Molybdenum Association (2019). "Louvre Abu Dhabi: A rain of light". Moly Review. No. 1.
↑ "Basilica de la Sagrada familia". Acero Inoxidable. No. 82. Cedinox. June 2018.
↑ Steel Construction Institute (2012). "Helix Pedestrian Bridge".
↑ "Cala Galdana Bridge". Steel Construction Institute. 2010.
↑ "Hong Kong-Zhuhai-Macau Bridge: the world's longest sea bridge". www.roadtraffic-technology.com. Retrieved 2021-04-29.
↑ Zuili, D (2010). "The use of stainless steels in oil & gas industry". Proceedings of the Duplex Stainless Steel Conference: 575. Archived from the original on 2022-05-06. Retrieved 2019-10-27.
↑ Chater, James (2007). "The pulp and paper industry turns to duplex" (PDF). Stainless steel world.
↑ Notten, G (1997). Application of Duplex Stainless Steel in the chemical process industry (PDF). 5th Duplex stainless steel world conference. Stainless Steel World.
↑ Directorate-General for Research and Innovation (2013). Duplex stainless steels in storage tanks. EU Publication. doi:10.2777/49448. ISBN 978-92-79-34576-0.

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[1] Peckner, Donald; Bernstein, I.M. (1977). "chapter 8". Handbook of Stainless Steels. McGraw Hill. ISBN 9780070491472.

[2] Lacombe, P.; Baroux, B.; Beranger, G. (1990). "chapter 18". Les Aciers Inoxydables. Les Editions de Physique. ISBN 2-86883-142-7.

[3] International Molybdenum Association (IMOA) (2014). Practical Guidelines for the fabrication of Duplex Stainless Steels (PDF). ISBN 978-1-907470-09-7 – via www.imoa.info.

[4] Charles, Jacques (2010). Proceedings of the Duplex Stainless Steel Conference, Beaune (2010). EDP Sciences, Paris. pp. 29–82. Archived from the original on 2022-05-06. Retrieved 2019-10-27.

[:0-5] 1 2 International Stainless Steel Forum (2020). "Duplex Stainless Steels" (PDF).

[6] Dr. James Fritz. "A Practical Guide to Using Duplex Stainless Steels". Nickel Institute.

[7] Bristish Stainless Steel Association. "Calculation of Pitting Resistance Equivalent Number (PREN)". bssa.org.uk.

[8] "Knowledge center — Sandvik Materials Technology". www.materials.sandvik. Retrieved 2019-03-25.

[BSI-9] 1 2 "The standard is available from BSI Shop".

[worldstain-10] "Stainless steel grades listed in the international standard ISO 15510:2010 Comparative designations of grades with similar composition from other important standards. (listed by type of steel structure and by increasing intermediate 3-digits code of the ISO name)" (PDF). International Stainless Steel Forum. Retrieved 10 March 2023.

[11] Mohamed Koko, A. (2022). In situ full-field characterisation of strain concentrations (deformation twins, slip bands and cracks) (PhD thesis). University of Oxford.

[12] Koko, Abdalrhaman; Elmukashfi, Elsiddig; Becker, Thorsten H.; Karamched, Phani S.; Wilkinson, Angus J.; Marrow, T. James (2022-10-15). "In situ characterisation of the strain fields of intragranular slip bands in ferrite by high-resolution electron backscatter diffraction". Acta Materialia. 239: 118284. doi: 10.1016/j.actamat.2022.118284 . ISSN 1359-6454.

[:02-13] Örnek, Cem; Burke, M. G.; Hashimoto, T.; Engelberg, D. L. (April 2017). "748 K (475 °C) Embrittlement of Duplex Stainless Steel: Effect on Microstructure and Fracture Behavior". Metallurgical and Materials Transactions A. 48 (4): 1653–1665. Bibcode:2017MMTA...48.1653O. doi: 10.1007/s11661-016-3944-2 . ISSN 1073-5623. S2CID 136321604.

[14] Weng, K. L; Chen, H. R; Yang, J. R (2004-08-15). "The low-temperature aging embrittlement in a 2205 duplex stainless steel". Materials Science and Engineering: A. 379 (1): 119–132. doi:10.1016/j.msea.2003.12.051. ISSN 0921-5093.

[:2-15] Beattie, H. J.; Versnyder, F. L. (July 1956). "A New Complex Phase in a High-Temperature Alloy". Nature. 178 (4526): 208–209. Bibcode:1956Natur.178..208B. doi:10.1038/178208b0. ISSN 1476-4687. S2CID 4217639.

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