Gambierdiscus toxicus

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Gambierdiscus toxicus
Gambierdiscus toxicus NOAA.png
Scientific classification OOjs UI icon edit-ltr.svg
Domain: Eukaryota
Clade: Diaphoretickes
Clade: SAR
Clade: Alveolata
Phylum: Myzozoa
Superclass: Dinoflagellata
Class: Dinophyceae
Order: Gonyaulacales
Family: Ostreopsidaceae
Genus: Gambierdiscus
Species:
G. toxicus
Binomial name
Gambierdiscus toxicus
R.Adachi & Y.Fukuyo, 1979

Gambierdiscus toxicus is a species of photosynthetic unicellular eukaryote belonging to the Alveolata, part of the SAR supergroup. It is a dinoflagellate which can cause the foodborne illness ciguatera, [1] and is known to produce several natural polyethers including ciguatoxin, maitotoxin, gambieric acid, and gambierol. [2] [3] The species was discovered attached to the surface of brown macroalgae. [2]

Contents

Taxonomy

This species was first described by Adachi, R. & Fukuyo, Y in 1979 using samples collected around Gambier Islands. [4] Which was split into five different species (Gambierdiscus caribaeus, Gambierdiscus carolinianus, Gambierdiscus carpenteri, Gambierdiscus ruetzleri and Gambierdiscus toxicus) according to their morphological characteristic of thecal structure, and the sequence of both D1–D3 and D8–D10 regions in large-subunit rDNA. [5]

Distribution

This species can be found in tropical and subtropical regions in Pacific Ocean and Indian Ocean. [6] It is often found at the surface of various macroalgae, dead coral, sand and in water column [7] suggesting that the certain chemical compounds in algal exudates may play an important role in the process of attachment . [7] In the presence of light, the attached cell will detach from the substrate and start swimming in water column. When the disturbance is over the swimming cells will again attach to the matrix. [8]

Secondary metabolites

This algae species is capable of producing a variety of bioactive polyketide natural products such as ciguatoxin with characteristic fused-ring cyclic polyether structure. It is believed that the biosynthesis pathway involves epoxide as an intermediate which then undergoes a cyclization reaction to form the fused-ring cyclic polyether structure. [9]

Related Research Articles

Ciguatera fish poisoning (CFP), also known as ciguatera, is a foodborne illness caused by eating reef fish contaminated with ciguatoxins. Such individual fish are said to be ciguatoxic. Symptoms may include diarrhea, vomiting, numbness, itchiness, sensitivity to hot and cold, dizziness, and weakness. The onset of symptoms varies with the amount of toxin eaten. If a lot of toxins are consumed symptoms may appear within half an hour. If a low amount of toxins are consumed symptoms make take a few days to appear. Diarrhea may last up to four days. Symptoms may last a few weeks to a few months. Heart problems such as slow heart rate and low blood pressure may occur.

Ciguatoxins are a class of toxic polycyclic polyethers found in fish that cause ciguatera.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Predatory dinoflagellate</span>

Predatory dinoflagellates are predatory heterotrophic or mixotrophic alveolates that derive some or most of their nutrients from digesting other organisms. About one half of dinoflagellates lack photosynthetic pigments and specialize in consuming other eukaryotic cells, and even photosynthetic forms are often predatory.

<i>Karlodinium</i> Genus of single-celled organisms

Karlodinium is a genus of athecate dinoflagellates that lives worldwide. They are often toxin producing, and compared to the other members of the Kareniaceae, are fairly small at <8-15 µm diameter. They are also able to form intense algal blooms. This species relies of photosynthesis and phagotrphy to grow.

Gonyaulax is a genus of dinoflagellates with the type species Gonyaulax spinifera Diesing. Gonyaulax belongs to red dinoflagellates and commonly causes red tides. It can produce yesotoxins: for example, strains of Gonyaulax spinifera from New Zealand are yessotoxin producers.

Gambierdiscus pacificus is a species of toxic dinoflagellate. It is 67–77 μm long and 60–76 μm wide dorsoventrally and its surface is smooth. It is identified by a four-sided apical pore plate surrounded by 30 round pores. Its first plate occupies 20% of the width of the hypotheca.

Gambierdiscus australes is a species of toxic dinoflagellate. It is 76–93 μm long and 65–85 μm wide dorsoventrally and its surface is smooth. It is identified by a broad ellipsoid apical pore plate surrounded by 31 round pores. Its first plate occupies 30% of the width of the hypotheca.

Gambierdiscus polynesiensis is a species of toxic dinoflagellate. It is 68–85 μm long and 64–75 μm wide dorsoventrally and its surface is smooth. It is identified by a large triangular apical pore plate, a narrow fish-hook opening surrounded by 38 round pores, and a large, broad posterior intercalary plate. Its first plate occupies 60% of the width of the hypotheca.

Gambierdiscus caribaeus is a species of toxic dinoflagellate, which among others causes ciguatera fish poisoning. It is photosynthetic and epibenthic.

Gambierdiscus carolinianus is a species of toxic dinoflagellate, which among others causes ciguatera fish poisoning. It is photosynthetic and epibenthic.

Gambierdiscus carpenteri is a species of toxic dinoflagellate, which among others causes ciguatera fish poisoning. It is photosynthetic and epibenthic.

Gambierdiscus ruetzleri is a species of toxic dinoflagellates, which among others causes ciguatera fish poisoning. It is photosynthetic and epibenthic.

<i>Gambierdiscus</i> Genus of protists

Gambierdiscus is a genus of marine dinoflagellates that produce ciguatoxins, a type of toxin that causes the foodborne illness known as ciguatera. They are usually epiphytic on macroalgae growing on coral reefs.

Gambierol is a marine polycyclic ether toxin which is produced by the dinoflagellate Gambierdiscus toxicus. Gambierol is collected from the sea at the Rangiroa Peninsula in French Polynesia. The toxins are accumulated in fish through the food chain and can therefore cause human intoxication. The symptoms of the toxicity resemble those of ciguatoxins, which are extremely potent neurotoxins that bind to voltage-sensitive sodium channels and alter their function. These ciguatoxins cause ciguatera fish poisoning. Because of the resemblance, there is a possibility that gambierol is also responsible for ciguatera fish poisoning. Because the natural source of gambierol is limited, biological studies are hampered. Therefore, chemical synthesis is required.

<i>Ostreopsis</i> Genus of single-celled organisms

Ostreopsis is a genus of free-living dinoflagellates found in marine environments. Some species are benthic; the planktonic species in the genus are known for the toxic algal blooms that they sometimes cause, threatening human and animal health.

Coolia is a marine dinoflagellate genus in the family Ostreopsidaceae. It was first described by Meunier in 1919. There are currently seven identified species distributed globally in tropical and temperate coastal waters. Coolia is a benthic or epiphytic type dinoflagellate: it can be found adhered to sediment or other organisms but it is not limited to these substrates. It can also be found in a freely motile form in the water column. The life cycle of Coolia involves an asexual stage where the cell divides by binary fission and a sexual stage where cysts are produced. Some of the species, for example, Coolia tropicalis and Coolia malayensis, produce toxins that can potentially cause shellfish poisoning in humans.

<i>Cochlodinium</i> Genus of protists

Cochlodinium is a genus of dinoflagellates belonging to the family Gymnodiniaceae. Over the past two decades, harmful algea blooms (HABs) caused by Cochlodinium had occurred more often and expanded from Southeast Asia to regions such as the rest of Asia, North America and Europe.

<i>Karlodinium veneficum</i> Species of single-celled organism

Karlodinium veneficum is a species of dinoflagellates belonging to the family Kareniaceae. This species is predominantly inhabiting aquatic environments, particularly in temperate coastal regions.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Kareniaceae</span> Family of protists

Kareniaceae is a accepted marine family of relatively small, toxic, unarmored dinoflagellates belonging to the order Gymnodiniales. Species in the Kareniaceae clade often times cause discolored green Harmful algea blooms (HABs) that pose a safety and health risk to humans and the regions around it. Such blooms also pose a risk to coastal aquaculture worldwide, especially places like France, Atlantic ocean, the English channel and the Mediterranean sea.

Ciguatoxin 1 or CTX-1 is a toxic chemical compound, the most common and potent type in the group of ciguatoxins. It is a large molecule consisting of polycyclic polyethers that can be found in certain types of fish in the Pacific Ocean. The compound is produced by Dinoflagellates Gambierdiscus toxicus and is passed on through the food chain by fish. The compound has no effect in fish but is toxic to humans. 

References

  1. ↑ "Cook Islands Biodiversity : Gambierdiscus toxicus - Ciguatera Dinoflagellate". Cookislands.bishopmuseum.org. Retrieved 2012-06-08.
  2. 1 2 Faust, MA and Gulledge (2002). "Identifying Harmful Marine Dynoflagellates". 42: 1–144.{{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help)
  3. ↑ Cuypers, E.; Abdel-Mottaleb, Y.; Kopljar, I.; Raes, A. L.; Snyders, D. J.; Tytgat, J (2008). "Gambierol, a toxin produced by the dinoflagellate Gambierdiscus toxicus, is a potent blocker of voltage-gated potassium". Toxicon. 51 (6): 974–983. doi:10.1016/j.toxicon.2008.01.004. PMC   2597072 . PMID   18313714.
  4. ↑ ADACHI, Rokuro; FUKUYO, Yasuwo (1979). "The Thecal Structure of a Marine Toxic Dinoflagellate Gambierdiscus toxicus gen. et sp. nov. Collected in a Ciguatera-endemic Area". Nippon Suisan Gakkaishi. 45 (1): 67–71. doi: 10.2331/suisan.45.67 . ISSN   1349-998X.
  5. ↑ Litaker, R. Wayne; Vandersea, Mark W.; Faust, Maria A.; Kibler, Steven R.; Chinain, Mireille; Holmes, Michael J.; Holland, William C.; Tester, Patricia A. (September 2009). "Taxonomy of Gambierdiscus including four new species, Gambierdiscus caribaeus, Gambierdiscus carolinianus, Gambierdiscus carpenteri and Gambierdiscus ruetzleri (Gonyaulacales, Dinophyceae)". Phycologia. 48 (5): 344–390. Bibcode:2009Phyco..48..344L. doi:10.2216/07-15.1. ISSN   0031-8884. S2CID   86334317.
  6. ↑ Tester, Patricia A.; Litaker, R. Wayne; Berdalet, Elisa (January 2020). "Climate change and harmful benthic microalgae". Harmful Algae. 91: 101655. doi: 10.1016/j.hal.2019.101655 . hdl: 10261/200648 . ISSN   1568-9883. PMID   32057343.
  7. 1 2 Parsons, Michael L.; Settlemier, Chelsie J.; Ballauer, Josh M. (April 2011). "An examination of the epiphytic nature of Gambierdiscus toxicus, a dinoflagellate involved in ciguatera fish poisoning". Harmful Algae. 10 (6): 598–605. doi:10.1016/j.hal.2011.04.011. ISSN   1568-9883. PMC   3182139 . PMID   21966283.
  8. ↑ Nakahara, Hiroyuki; Sakami, Tomoko; Chinain, Mireille; Ishida, Yuzaburo (June 1996). "The role of macroalgae in epiphytism of the toxic dinoflagellate Gambierdiscus toxicus (Dinophyceae)". Phycological Research. 44 (2): 113–117. doi:10.1111/j.1440-1835.1996.tb00385.x. ISSN   1322-0829. S2CID   84070794.
  9. ↑ Van Wagoner, Ryan M.; Satake, Masayuki; Wright, Jeffrey L. C. (2014-06-16). "Polyketide biosynthesis in dinoflagellates: what makes it different?". Natural Product Reports. 31 (9): 1101–37. doi:10.1039/c4np00016a. ISSN   0265-0568. PMID   24930430.


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