High-functioning autism

Last updated

High-functioning autism
Other names Sukhareva syndrome [1]
Specialty Psychiatry
Symptoms Trouble with social interaction, impaired communication, restricted interests, repetitive behavior
Complications Social isolation, employment problems, family stress, bullying, self-harm [2]
Usual onsetBy age two or three [3] [4]
DurationLifelong
Causes Genetic and environmental factors
Diagnostic method Based on behavior and developmental history
Differential diagnosis Asperger syndrome, ADHD, Tourette syndrome, anxiety, bipolar disorder, obsessive–compulsive disorder
Treatment Behavioral therapy, speech therapy, psychotropic medication [5] [6] [7]
Medication Antipsychotics, antidepressants, stimulants (associated symptoms) [8] [9] [10]

High-functioning autism (HFA) was historically an autism classification where a person exhibits no intellectual disability, but may experience difficulty in communication, emotion recognition, expression, and social interaction. [11] [12] [13]

Contents

HFA has never been included in either the American Psychiatric Association's Diagnostic and Statistical Manual (DSM) or the World Health Organization's International Classification of Diseases (ICD), the two major classification and diagnostic guidelines for psychiatric conditions.

Characterization

High-functioning autism is characterized by features similar to those of Asperger syndrome. The defining characteristic recognized by psychologists is a significant delay in the development of early speech and language skills, before the age of three years. [12] The diagnostic criteria of Asperger syndrome exclude a general language delay. [14]

Further differences in features of people with high-functioning autism from those with Asperger syndrome include the following: [12] [15] [16] [17]

Comorbidities

Individuals with autism spectrum disorders, including high-functioning autism, risk developing symptoms of anxiety. While anxiety is one of the most commonly occurring mental health symptoms, children and adolescents with high functioning autism are at an even greater risk of developing symptoms. [18]

There are other comorbidities, the presence of one or more disorders in addition to the primary disorder, associated with high-functioning autism. Some of these include bipolar disorder and obsessive–compulsive disorder (OCD). In particular the link between HFA and OCD, has been studied; both have abnormalities associated with serotonin. [19]

Observable comorbidities associated with HFA include ADHD and Tourette syndrome. HFA does not cause, nor include, intellectual disabilities. This characteristic distinguishes HFA from low-functioning autism; between 40 and 55% of individuals with autism also have an intellectual disability. [20]

Behavior

An association between HFA and criminal behavior is not completely characterized. Several studies have shown that the features associated with HFA may increase the probability of engaging in criminal behavior. [19] While there is still a great deal of research that needs to be done in this area, recent studies on the correlation between HFA and criminal actions suggest that there is a need to understand the attributes of HFA that may lead to violent behavior. There have been several case studies that link the lack of empathy and social naïveté associated with HFA to criminal actions. [21]

There is still a need for more research on the link between HFA and crimes, because many other studies point out that most people with ASD are more likely to be victims and less likely to commit crimes than the general population. But there are also small-subgroups of people with autism that commit crimes because they lack understanding of the laws they have broken. [22] Misunderstandings are especially common regarding autism and sex offenses, since many people with autism do not receive sex education. [23]

Cause

Although little is known about the biological basis of autism, studies have revealed structural abnormalities in specific brain regions. Regions identified in the "social" brain include the amygdala, superior temporal sulcus, fusiform gyrus area and orbitofrontal cortex. Further abnormalities have been observed in the caudate nucleus, believed to be involved in restrictive behaviors, as well as in a significant increase in the amount of cortical grey matter and atypical connectivity between brain regions. [24]

Diagnosis and IQ

HFA is not a recognised diagnosis by the American Psychiatric Association or the World Health Organization. HFA is often, however, used in clinical settings to describe a set of symptoms related to an autism spectrum disorder whereby they exhibit standard autism indicators although have an intelligence quotient (IQ) of 70 or greater. [25]

Treatment

While there exists no single treatment or medicine for people with autism, there exists several strategies to help lessen the symptoms and effects of the condition. There is however no one size fits all solution, so that the best treatment course is different for each individual. Furthermore, research shows that earlier diagnosis and interventions are more likely to have significant beneficial effects later in life. [26]

Augmentative and alternative communication

Augmentative and alternative communication (AAC) is used for autistic people who cannot communicate orally. People who have problems speaking may be taught to use other forms of communication, such as body language, computers, interactive devices, and pictures. [27] The Picture Exchange Communication System (PECS) is a commonly used form of augmentative and alternative communication with children and adults who cannot communicate well orally. People are taught how to link pictures and symbols to their feelings, desires and observation, and may be able to link sentences together with the vocabulary that they form. [28]

Speech–language pathologists

Speech–language pathologists (SLPs) can help those with autism who need to develop or improve communication skills. [29] People with autism may have issues with communication, or speaking spoken words. According to the ASHA, SLPs can help diagnosing autism as they often are among the earliest practitioners that children with autism see, and help with finding means of communication that better suit the child. [30] They can also counsel caretakers, and accompany people with autism when they transition into adulthood and a work environment, such as help in writing an adequate CV. [30] SLPs may teach someone how to communicate more effectively with others or work on starting to develop speech patterns. [31] SLPs use a variety of therapies depending on the child's needs and practitioner's preferences, usually a mix composed in majority of promising therapies and a few unestablished therapies according to evidence-based guidelines. [30] [32]

Occupational therapy

Occupational therapy helps autistic children and adults learn everyday skills that help them with daily tasks, such as personal hygiene and movement. These skills are then integrated into their home, school, and work environments. Therapists will oftentimes help people learn to adapt their environment to their skill level. [33] This type of therapy could help autistic people become more engaged in their environment. [28] An occupational therapist will create a plan based on a person's needs and desires and work with them to achieve their set goals.

Applied behavioral analysis (ABA)

Applied behavior analysis (ABA) is considered the most effective therapy for autism spectrum disorders by the American Academy of Pediatrics. [34] ABA focuses on teaching adaptive behaviors like social skills, play skills, or communication skills [35] [36] and diminishing problematic behaviors such as self-injury [37] by creating a specialized plan that uses behavioral therapy techniques, such as positive or negative reinforcement, to encourage or discourage certain behaviors over-time. [38] However, ABA has been strongly criticised by the autistic community, who view it as abusive and detrimental to autistic children's growth. [39] [40] [41]

Sensory integration therapy

Sensory integration therapy helps people with autism adapt to different kinds of sensory stimuli. Many with autism can be oversensitive to certain stimuli, such as lights or sounds, causing them to overreact. Others may not react to certain stimuli, such as someone speaking to them. [42] Many types of therapy activities involve a form of play, such as using swings, toys and trampolines to help engage people with sensory stimuli. [28] Therapists will create a plan that focuses on the type of stimulation the person needs integration with.

Neurofeedback

Studies suggest Neurofeedback alleviates certain symptoms of autism, such as emotional outbursts, hyperactivity, resistance to change, and stimming. Although considered a safe, non-invasive procedure, it may potentially involve some side effects. [43]

Medication

There are no medications specifically designed to treat autism. Medication is usually used for symptoms associated with autism, such as depression, anxiety, or behavioral problems. [44] Medicines are usually used after other alternative forms of treatment have failed. [45]

See also

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Asperger syndrome</span> Neurodevelopmental diagnosis now categorized under Autism Spectrum Disorder

Asperger syndrome (AS), also known as Asperger's syndrome, formerly described a neurodevelopmental disorder characterized by significant difficulties in social interaction and nonverbal communication, along with restricted and repetitive patterns of behavior, interests, and activities. The syndrome has been merged with other disorders into autism spectrum disorder (ASD) and is no longer considered a stand-alone diagnosis. It was considered milder than other diagnoses that were merged into ASD due to relatively unimpaired spoken language and intelligence.

The diagnostic category pervasive developmental disorders (PDD), as opposed to specific developmental disorders (SDD), was a group of disorders characterized by delays in the development of multiple basic functions including socialization and communication. It was defined by the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM), and the International Classification of Diseases (ICD).

Developmental disorders comprise a group of psychiatric conditions originating in childhood that involve serious impairment in different areas. There are several ways of using this term. The most narrow concept is used in the category "Specific Disorders of Psychological Development" in the ICD-10. These disorders comprise developmental language disorder, learning disorders, motor disorders, and autism spectrum disorders. In broader definitions ADHD is included, and the term used is neurodevelopmental disorders. Yet others include antisocial behavior and schizophrenia that begins in childhood and continues through life. However, these two latter conditions are not as stable as the other developmental disorders, and there is not the same evidence of a shared genetic liability.

Pervasive developmental disorder not otherwise specified (PDD-NOS) is a historic psychiatric diagnosis first defined in 1980 that has since been incorporated into autism spectrum disorder in the DSM-5 (2013).

Childhood disintegrative disorder (CDD), also known as Heller's syndrome and disintegrative psychosis, is a rare condition characterized by late onset of developmental delays—or severe and sudden reversals—in language, social engagement, bowel and bladder, play and motor skills. Researchers have not been successful in finding a cause for the disorder. CDD has some similarities to autism and is sometimes considered a low-functioning form of it. In May 2013, CDD, along with other sub-types of PDD, was fused into a single diagnostic term called "autism spectrum disorder" under the new DSM-5 manual.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Conditions comorbid to autism spectrum disorders</span> Medical conditions more common in autistic people

Autism spectrum disorders (ASD) are neurodevelopmental disorders that begin in early childhood, persist throughout adulthood, and affect three crucial areas of development: communication, social interaction and restricted patterns of behavior. There are many conditions comorbid to autism spectrum disorders such as attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder and epilepsy.

Nonverbal learning disability (NVLD) is a proposed category of neurodevelopmental disorder characterized by core deficits in visual-spatial processing and a significant discrepancy between verbal and nonverbal intelligence. A review of papers found that proposed diagnostic criteria were inconsistent. Proposed additional diagnostic criteria include intact verbal intelligence, and deficits in the following: visuoconstruction abilities, speech prosody, fine motor coordination, mathematical reasoning, visuospatial memory and social skills. NVLD is not recognised by the DSM-5 and is not clinically distinct from learning disorder.

The following outline is provided as an overview of and topical guide to autism:

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Autism therapies</span> Therapy aimed at autistic people

Autism therapies include a wide variety of therapies that help people with autism, or their families. Such methods of therapy seek to aid autistic people in dealing with difficulties and increase their functional independence.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Stimming</span> Repetitive self-stimulatory behaviour common in neurodevelopmental disorders

Self-stimulatory behavior, also known as "stimming" and self-stimulation, is the repetition of physical movements, sounds, words, moving objects, or other repetitive behaviors. Such behaviors are found to some degree in all people, especially those with developmental disabilities such as ADHD, as well as autistic people. People diagnosed with sensory processing disorder are also known to potentially exhibit stimming behaviors.

The autism-spectrum quotient (AQ) is a questionnaire published in 2001 by Simon Baron-Cohen and his colleagues at the Autism Research Centre in Cambridge, UK. Consisting of fifty questions, it aims to investigate whether adults of average intelligence have symptoms of autism spectrum conditions. More recently, versions of the AQ for children and adolescents have also been published.

In human development, muteness or mutism is defined as an absence of speech, with or without an ability to hear the speech of others. Mutism is typically understood as a person's inability to speak, and commonly observed by their family members, caregivers, teachers, doctors or speech and language pathologists. It may not be a permanent condition, as muteness can be caused or manifest due to several different phenomena, such as physiological injury, illness, medical side effects, psychological trauma, developmental disorders, or neurological disorders. A specific physical disability or communication disorder can be more easily diagnosed. Loss of previously normal speech (aphasia) can be due to accidents, disease, or surgical complication; it is rarely for psychological reasons.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Societal and cultural aspects of autism</span>

Societal and cultural aspects of autism or sociology of autism come into play with recognition of autism, approaches to its support services and therapies, and how autism affects the definition of personhood. The autistic community is divided primarily into two camps; the autism rights movement and the Pathology paradigm. The pathology paradigm advocates for supporting research into therapies, treatments, and/or a cure to help minimize or remove autistic traits, seeing treatment as vital to help individuals with autism, while the neurodiversity movement believes autism should be seen as a different way of being and advocates against a cure and interventions that focus on normalization, seeing it as trying to exterminate autistic people and their individuality. Both are controversial in autism communities and advocacy which has led to significant infighting between these two camps. While the dominant paradigm is the pathology paradigm and is followed largely by autism research and scientific communities, the neurodiversity movement is highly popular among most autistic people, within autism advocacy, autism rights organizations, and related neurodiversity approaches have been rapidly growing and applied in the autism research field in the last few years.

Asperger syndrome (AS) was formerly a separate diagnosis under autism spectrum disorder. Under the DSM-5 and ICD-11, patients formerly diagnosable with Asperger syndrome are diagnosable with Autism Spectrum Disorder. The term is considered offensive by some autistic individuals. It was named after Hans Asperger (1906–80), who was an Austrian psychiatrist and pediatrician. An English psychiatrist, Lorna Wing, popularized the term "Asperger's syndrome" in a 1981 publication; the first book in English on Asperger syndrome was written by Uta Frith in 1991 and the condition was subsequently recognized in formal diagnostic manuals later in the 1990s.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Classic autism</span> Neurodevelopmental condition

Classic autism, also known as childhood autism, autistic disorder, (early) infantile autism, infantile psychosis, Kanner's autism,Kanner's syndrome, or (formerly) just autism, is a neurodevelopmental condition first described by Leo Kanner in 1943. It is characterized by atypical and impaired development in social interaction and communication as well as restricted, repetitive behaviors, activities, and interests. These symptoms first appear in early childhood and persist throughout life.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Autism spectrum</span> Neurodevelopmental disorder

Autism, formally called autism spectrum disorder (ASD) or autism spectrum condition (ASC), is a neurodevelopmental disorder marked by deficits in reciprocal social communication and the presence of restricted and repetitive patterns of behavior. Other common signs include difficulties with social interaction, verbal and nonverbal communication, along with perseverative interests, stereotypic body movements, rigid routines, and hyper- or hyporeactivity to sensory input. Autism is clinically regarded as a spectrum disorder, meaning that it can manifest very differently in each person. For example, some are nonspeaking, while others have proficient spoken language. Because of this, there is wide variation in the support needs of people across the autism spectrum.

In psychiatry, stilted speech or pedantic speech is communication characterized by situationally inappropriate formality. This formality can be expressed both through abnormal prosody as well as speech content that is "inappropriately pompous, legalistic, philosophical, or quaint". Often, such speech can act as evidence for autism spectrum disorder (ASD) or a thought disorder, a common symptom in schizophrenia or schizoid personality disorder.

The history of autism spans over a century; autism has been subject to varying treatments, being pathologized or being viewed as a beneficial part of human neurodiversity. The understanding of autism has been shaped by cultural, scientific, and societal factors, and its perception and treatment change over time as scientific understanding of autism develops.

The Ritvo Autism & Asperger Diagnostic Scale (RAADS) is a psychological self-rating scale developed by Dr. Riva Ariella Ritvo. An abridged and translated 14 question version was then developed at the Department of Clinical Neuroscience at the Karolinska Institute, to aid in the identification of patients who may have undiagnosed ASD.

Social (pragmatic) communication disorder (SPCD), also known as pragmatic language impairment (PLI), is a neurodevelopmental disorder characterized by significant difficulties in the social use of verbal and nonverbal communication. Individuals with SPCD struggle to effectively engage in social interactions, interpret social cues, and use language appropriately in social contexts. This disorder can have a profound impact on an individual's ability to establish and maintain relationships, navigate social situations, and participate in academic and professional settings. Although SPCD shares similarities with other communication disorders, such as autism spectrum disorder (ASD), it is recognized as a distinct diagnostic category with its own set of diagnostic criteria and features.

References

  1. ↑ Manouilenko I, Bejerot S (August 2015). "Sukhareva – Prior to Asperger and Kanner". Nordic Journal of Psychiatry (Report). 69 (6) (published 31 March 2015): 479–82. doi:10.3109/08039488.2015.1005022. PMID   25826582. S2CID   207473133.
  2. ↑ "Autism spectrum disorder - Symptoms and causes". Mayo Clinic. Archived from the original on 14 July 2019. Retrieved 13 July 2019.
  3. ↑ "NIMH " Autism Spectrum Disorder". nimh.nih.gov. October 2016. Archived from the original on 21 April 2017. Retrieved 20 April 2017.
  4. ↑ American Psychiatric Association (2013). "Autism Spectrum Disorder. 299.00 (F84.0)". Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, Fifth Edition (DSM-5). Arlington, VA: American Psychiatric Publishing. pp. 50–59. doi:10.1176/appi.books.9780890425596. hdl:2027.42/138395. ISBN   978-0-89042-559-6.
  5. ↑ Myers SM, Johnson CP (November 2007). "Management of children with autism spectrum disorders". Pediatrics. 120 (5): 1162–82. doi: 10.1542/peds.2007-2362 . PMID   17967921. Archived from the original on 2019-03-23. Retrieved 2019-05-24.
  6. ↑ Sanchack KE, Thomas CA (15 December 2016). "Autism Spectrum Disorder: Primary Care Principles". American Family Physician. 94 (12): 972–79. PMID   28075089.
  7. ↑ Sukhodolsky DG, Bloch MH, Panza KE, Reichow B (November 2013). "Cognitive-behavioral therapy for anxiety in children with high-functioning autism: a meta-analysis". Pediatrics. 132 (5): e1341–50. doi:10.1542/peds.2013-1193. PMC   3813396 . PMID   24167175.
  8. ↑ Ji N, Findling RL (March 2015). "An update on pharmacotherapy for autism spectrum disorder in children and adolescents". Current Opinion in Psychiatry. 28 (2): 91–101. doi:10.1097/YCO.0000000000000132. PMID   25602248. S2CID   206141453.
  9. ↑ Oswald DP, Sonenklar NA (June 2007). "Medication use among children with autism spectrum disorders". Journal of Child and Adolescent Psychopharmacology. 17 (3): 348–55. doi:10.1089/cap.2006.17303. PMID   17630868.
  10. ↑ Jaeggi SM, Buschkuehl M, Jonides J, Perrig WJ (2008). "From the Cover: Improving fluid intelligence with training on working memory". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. 105 (19): 6829–33. Bibcode:2008PNAS..105.6829J. doi: 10.1073/pnas.0801268105 . PMC   2383929 . PMID   18443283.
  11. ↑ Sanders JL (2009). "Qualitative or Quantitative Differences Between Asperger's Disorder and Autism? Historical Considerations". Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders. 39 (11): 1560–1567. doi:10.1007/s10803-009-0798-0. ISSN   0162-3257. PMID   19548078. S2CID   26351778.
  12. 1 2 3 Carpenter LA, Soorya L, Halpern D (2009). "Asperger's Syndrome and High-Functioning Autism". Pediatric Annals. 38 (1): 30–5. doi:10.3928/00904481-20090101-01. PMID   19213291.
  13. ↑ Andari E, Duhamel JR, Zalla T, Herbrecht E, Leboyer M, Sirigu A (2 March 2019). "Promoting social behavior with oxytocin in highfunctioning autism spectrum disorders" (PDF). PNAS . 107 (9): 4389–4394. doi: 10.1073/pnas.0910249107 . PMC   2840168 . PMID   20160081.
  14. ↑ Asperger's Disorder Archived 2013-04-25 at archive.today – Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders Fourth edition Text Revision (DSM-IV-TR) American Psychiatric Association (2000)
  15. ↑ "News and general information | Finance, High tech, Health, ..." (PDF). March 14, 2022. Archived from the original on August 9, 2007.
  16. ↑ Rinehart NJ, Bradshaw JL, Brereton AV, Tonge BJ (2002). "Lateralization in individuals with high-functioning autism and Asperger's disorder: A frontostriatal model". Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders. 32 (4): 321–331. doi:10.1023/A:1016387020095. PMID   12199137. S2CID   23067447.
  17. ↑ Mazefsky CA, Oswald DP (2006). "Emotion Perception in Asperger's Syndrome and High-functioning Autism: The Importance of Diagnostic Criteria and Cue Intensity". Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders. 37 (6): 1086–95. doi:10.1007/s10803-006-0251-6. PMID   17180461. S2CID   12094187.
  18. ↑ Reaven J (2011). "The treatment of anxiety symptoms in youth with high-functioning autism spectrum disorders: Developmental considerations for parents". Brain Research. 1380: 255–63. doi:10.1016/j.brainres.2010.09.075. PMID   20875799. S2CID   5226904.
  19. 1 2 Mazzone L, Ruta L, Reale L (2012). "Psychiatric comorbidities in asperger syndrome and high functioning autism: Diagnostic challenges". Annals of General Psychiatry. 11 (1): 16. doi: 10.1186/1744-859X-11-16 . PMC   3416662 . PMID   22731684.
  20. ↑ Newschaffer CJ, Croen LA, Daniels J, Giarelli E, Grether JK, Levy SE, Mandell DS, Miller LA, Pinto-Martin J, Reaven J, Reynolds AM, Rice CE, Schendel D, Windham GC (2007). "The Epidemiology of Autism Spectrum Disorders*". Annual Review of Public Health. 28 (1): 235–258. doi: 10.1146/annurev.publhealth.28.021406.144007 . ISSN   0163-7525. PMID   17367287.
  21. ↑ Lerner MD, Haque OS, Northrup EC, Lawer L, Bursztajn HJ (2012). "Emerging Perspectives on Adolescents and Young Adults With High-Functioning Autism Spectrum Disorders, Violence, and Criminal Law". Journal of the American Academy of Psychiatry and the Law. 40 (2): 177–90. PMID   22635288. Archived from the original on 2019-12-11. Retrieved 2013-03-24.
  22. ↑ "Autism Myths & Misconceptions" (PDF). Retrieved 2021-08-05.
  23. ↑ Moyer MW (2019-07-09). "When autistic people commit sexual crimes". Spectrum News. Retrieved 2021-08-05.
  24. ↑ Spencer M, Stanfield A, Johnstone E (2011). "Brain imaging and the neuroanatomical correlates of autism". In Roth I, Rezaie P (eds.). Researching the Autism Spectrum . pp.  112–55. doi:10.1017/CBO9780511973918.006. ISBN   978-0-511-97391-8.
  25. ↑ de Giambattista C (2019). "Subtyping the Autism Spectrum Disorder: Comparison of Children with High Functioning Autism and Asperger Syndrome". Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders . 49 (1): 138–150. doi:10.1007/s10803-018-3689-4. PMC   6331497 . PMID   30043350.
  26. ↑ "What are the treatments for autism? | NICHD - Eunice Kennedy Shriver National Institute of Child Health and Human Development". www.nichd.nih.gov. 2021-04-19. Retrieved 2023-06-10.
  27. ↑ "Augmentative and Alternative Communication (AAC)". American Speech-Language-Hearing Association. Archived from the original on 2019-08-15. Retrieved 2019-08-20.
  28. 1 2 3 "What Treatments are Available for Speech, Language and Motor Issues?". Autism Speaks. Archived from the original on 2015-12-22. Retrieved 2015-12-16.
  29. ↑ "What is Autism, Asperger Syndrome, and Pervasive Developmental Disorders?". US Autism and Asperger Association. Archived from the original on 28 December 2015. Retrieved 16 December 2015.
  30. 1 2 3 "Autism (Autism Spectrum Disorder)". American Speech-Language-Hearing Association. Retrieved 2023-06-11.
  31. ↑ "Speech and Language Therapy". Autism Education Trust. Archived from the original on June 26, 2018.
  32. ↑ Hsieh MY, Lynch G, Madison C (2018-08-06). "Intervention Techniques Used With Autism Spectrum Disorder by Speech-Language Pathologists in the United States and Taiwan: A Descriptive Analysis of Practice in Clinical Settings". American Journal of Speech-Language Pathology. 27 (3): 1091–1104. doi:10.1044/2018_AJSLP-17-0039. ISSN   1058-0360. PMID   29710283. S2CID   206169358.
  33. ↑ "Occupational Therapy's Role with Autism" (PDF). American Occupational Therapy Association. Retrieved April 3, 2022.
  34. ↑ Myers SM, Johnson CP (1 November 2007). "Management of Children With Autism Spectrum Disorders". Pediatrics. 120 (5): 1162–1182. doi: 10.1542/peds.2007-2362 . ISSN   0031-4005. PMID   17967921. Archived from the original on 9 October 2019. Retrieved 20 August 2019.
  35. ↑ "Applied Behavioral Analysis (ABA): What is ABA?". Autism partnership. 16 June 2011. Archived from the original on 2019-01-03. Retrieved 2019-08-20.
  36. ↑ Matson J, Hattier M, Belva B (January–March 2012). "Treating adaptive living skills of persons with autism using applied behavior analysis: A review". Research in Autism Spectrum Disorders. 6 (1): 271–276. doi:10.1016/j.rasd.2011.05.008.
  37. ↑ Summers J, Sharami A, Cali S, D'Mello C, Kako M, Palikucin-Reljin A, Savage M, Shaw O, Lunsky Y (November 2017). "Self-Injury in Autism Spectrum Disorder and Intellectual Disability: Exploring the Role of Reactivity to Pain and Sensory Input". Brain Sci. 7 (11): 140. doi: 10.3390/brainsci7110140 . PMC   5704147 . PMID   29072583.
  38. ↑ "Applied Behavioral Strategies - Getting to Know ABA". Archived from the original on 2015-10-07. Retrieved 2015-12-16.
  39. ↑ "Invisible Abuse: ABA and the things only autistic people can see". 28 March 2019.
  40. ↑ "The Controversy Around ABA". Child Mind Institute.
  41. ↑ "The controversy over autism's most common therapy". 10 August 2016.
  42. ↑ Smith M, Segal J, Hutman T. "Autism Spectrum Disorders". helpguide.org. Archived from the original on 7 January 2015.
  43. ↑ "Neurofeedback And Autism: General Information And Systematic Review". February 6, 2022. Retrieved October 6, 2022.
  44. ↑ National Institute of Mental Health. "Medications for Autism". Psych Central. Archived from the original on 2015-12-13. Retrieved 2015-12-16.
  45. ↑ Pope J, Volkmar F (3 April 2012). "Medicines for Autism". WebMD. Archived from the original on 17 December 2014. Retrieved November 14, 2014.

Further reading

This page is based on this Wikipedia article
Text is available under the CC BY-SA 4.0 license; additional terms may apply.
Images, videos and audio are available under their respective licenses.