Mineral dust

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Dust Plumes off Western Africa and the Cape Verde Islands. Dust Plumes off Western Africa.jpg
Dust Plumes off Western Africa and the Cape Verde Islands.
Granulometry
Sample Net-withGraphic.png
Basic concepts
Particle size, Grain size, Size distribution, Morphology
Methods and techniques
Mesh scale, Optical granulometry, Sieve analysis, Soil gradation
Related concepts
Granulation, Granular material, Mineral dust, Pattern recognition, Dynamic light scattering

Mineral dust is atmospheric aerosol originated from the suspension of minerals constituting the soil, composed of various oxides and carbonates. Human activities lead to 30% of the airborne dust (particulates) load in the atmosphere. The Sahara Desert is the major source of mineral dust, which subsequently spreads across the Mediterranean (where it is the origin of rain dust) and Caribbean seas into northern South America, Central America, and eastern North America, and Europe. Additionally, it plays a significant role in the nutrient inflow to the Amazon rainforest. [1] The Gobi Desert is another source of dust in the atmosphere, which affects eastern Asia and western North America.

Contents

Characteristics

Mineral dust is mainly constituted of the oxides (SiO2, Al2O3, FeO, Fe2O3, CaO, and others) and carbonates (CaCO3, MgCO3) that constitute the Earth's crust.

Global mineral dust emissions are estimated at 1000-5000 million tons per year, [2] of which the largest part is attributed to deserts. Although this aerosol class is usually considered of natural origin, it is estimated that about a quarter of mineral dust emissions could be ascribed to human activities through desertification and land use changes. [3]

Large dust concentrations may cause problems to people having respiratory problems. Another effect of dust clouds is more colorful sunsets.

Saharan dust

Satellite photo of a Saharan dust cloud (2000) over the Eastern Atlantic Ocean. Sandstorm big.jpg
Satellite photo of a Saharan dust cloud (2000) over the Eastern Atlantic Ocean.

The Sahara is the major source on Earth of mineral dust (60-200 million tons per year).[ citation needed ] Saharan dust can be lifted by convection over hot desert areas, and can thus reach very high altitudes; from there it can be transported worldwide by winds, covering distances of thousands of kilometers. The dust combined with the extremely hot, dry air of the Sahara Desert often forms an atmospheric layer called the Saharan Air Layer which has significant effects on tropical weather, especially as it interferes with the development of hurricanes.

Graph linking dust to various coral deaths across the Caribbean Sea and Florida. Barbadosdustgraph.gif
Graph linking dust to various coral deaths across the Caribbean Sea and Florida.
Images showing Saharan dust crossing the Atlantic. Saharan Dust Crosses the Atlantic.jpg
Images showing Saharan dust crossing the Atlantic.
Saharan dust seen on Swabian Jura (Germany) Schwabische Alb, Saharastaub.jpg
Saharan dust seen on Swabian Jura (Germany)

There is a large variability in the dust transport across the Atlantic into the Caribbean and Florida from year to year. In some years African dust is observed along much of the East Coast of the United States and is visible in the sky. Due to the trade winds, very large concentrations of mineral dust can be found in the tropical Atlantic, reaching the Caribbean; moreover episodic transport to the Mediterranean region. [4] Saharan plumes can form iberulites (a particular tropospheric aggregation of aerosols) when these plumes travel through North Africa and the eastern North Atlantic Ocean, and often reach the circum-Mediterranean areas of Western Europe. In the Mediterranean region, Saharan dust is important as it represents the major source of nutrients for phytoplankton and other aquatic organisms. Saharan dust carries the fungus Aspergillus sydowii and others. [5] Aspergillus borne by Saharan dust falls into the Caribbean Sea and possibly infects coral reefs with Sea Fan disease (aspergillosis). It also has been linked to increased incidence of pediatric asthma attacks in the Caribbean. Since 1970, dust outbreaks have worsened due to periods of drought in Africa. [6] Dust events have been linked to a decline in the health of coral reefs across the Caribbean and Florida, primarily since the 1970s. [7]

Effect on hurricane frequency

According to a NASA article, [8] NASA satellites have shown that "the chilling effect of dust was responsible for one-third of the drop in North Atlantic sea surface temperatures between June 2005 and 2006, possibly contributing to the difference in hurricane activity between the two seasons." There were only 5 hurricanes in 2006 compared with 15 in 2005.

It is known that one of the major factors that create hurricanes is warm water temperatures on the surface of the ocean. Evidence shows that dust from the Sahara desert caused surface temperatures to be cooler in 2006 than in 2005.

Asian dust

Aizuwakamatsu, Japan with clear skies. Aizuwakamatsu On A Clear Day.PNG
Aizuwakamatsu, Japan with clear skies.
Aizuwakamatsu, Japan shrouded in Asian Dust on April 2nd, 2007. Asian Dust in Aizuwakamatsu.PNG
Aizuwakamatsu, Japan shrouded in Asian Dust on April 2nd, 2007.

In Eastern Asia, mineral dust events that originate in the Gobi Desert (Southern Mongolia and Northern China) during springtime give rise to the phenomenon called Asian dust. The aerosols are carried eastward by prevailing winds, and pass over China, Korea, and Japan. Sometimes, significant concentrations of dust can be carried as far as the Western United States. [9] Areas affected by Asian dust experience decreased visibility and health problems, such as sore throat and respiratory difficulties. The effects of Asian dust, however, are not strictly negative, as it is thought that its deposition enriches the soil with important trace minerals.

An American study[ citation needed ] analyzing the composition of Asian dust events reaching Colorado associates them to the presence of carbon monoxide, possibly incorporated in the air mass as it passes over industrialized regions in Asia. Although dust storms in the Gobi desert have occurred from time to time throughout history, they became a pronounced problem in the second half of the 20th century due to intensified agricultural pressure and desertification.

North American dust

Mineral dust originates from several sources on the North American continent including the Southwest, the Great Plains, and Alaska. In the Southwest, dust impacts human health, [10] [11] visibility, [12] [13] lake productivity, [14] and the rate of snowmelt in the Rocky Mountains. [15] Dust deposition has increased dramatically since the early 1800s compared to the natural background [16] [17] [18] due to the intensification of human activities. [19]

Relationship to drought

Arid and semi-arid regions are naturally prone to dust emissions. [20] Soil moisture is an important variable controlling dust emissions, along with vegetation cover, wind speed and soil type. Several studies based on modern observations show positive relationships (i.e. increasing drought increases dust) between dust and drought conditions in each dust cycle phase, from emissions, [21] to atmospheric burden, [22] to deposition. [23] However, studies based on paleo records of dust deposition (e.g. using lake sediment) that specifically looked at megadroughts show both increases [18] and no change [17] [24] in dust deposition. The study by Routson showed an increase in deposition during megadroughts but used a measure of dust concentration rather than accumulation that is affected by the rate of sedimentation. The Routson study instead used dust accumulation rates and found no difference between dust deposition during drought years and megadroughts and deposition during normal hydroclimate conditions. Instead, they found that dust deposition is more likely controlled by transport mechanisms and sediment supply than by hydroclimate. Similarly, Arcusa found no evidence for higher dust deposition during drought on multi-decadal and centennial scales. [24] They also found that sediment supply played a key role as evidenced from a 60% increase in deposition in the 1800s due to accelerating land disturbance.

See also

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Desertification</span> Process by which fertile areas of land become increasingly arid

Desertification is a type of land degradation in drylands in which biological productivity is lost due to natural processes or induced by human activities whereby fertile areas become arid. It is the spread of arid areas caused by a variety of factors, such as overexploitation of soil as a result of human activity and the effects of climate change. Geographic areas most affected include the Sahel region in Africa, the Gobi Desert and Mongolia in Asia as well as parts of South America. Drylands occupy approximately 40–41% of Earth's land area and are home to more than 2 billion people.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Dust storm</span> Meteorological phenomenon common in arid and semi-arid regions

A dust storm, also called a sandstorm, is a meteorological phenomenon common in arid and semi-arid regions. Dust storms arise when a gust front or other strong wind blows loose sand and dirt from a dry surface. Fine particles are transported by saltation and suspension, a process that moves soil from one place and deposits it in another.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Sulfate</span> Oxyanion with a central atom of sulfur surrounded by 4 oxygen atoms

The sulfate or sulphate ion is a polyatomic anion with the empirical formula SO2−4. Salts, acid derivatives, and peroxides of sulfate are widely used in industry. Sulfates occur widely in everyday life. Sulfates are salts of sulfuric acid and many are prepared from that acid.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Global dimming</span> Reduction in the amount of sunlight reaching Earths surface

Global dimming was the name given to a decline in the amount of sunlight reaching the Earth's surface, a measure also known as global direct solar irradiance. It was observed soon after the first systematic measurements of solar irradiance began in the 1950s, and continued until 1980s, with an observed reduction of 4–5% per decade, even though solar activity did not vary more than the usual at the time. Instead, global dimming had been attributed to an increase in atmospheric particulate matter, predominantly sulfate aerosols, as the result of rapidly growing air pollution due to post-war industrialization. After 1980s, global dimming started to reverse, alongside reductions in particulate emissions, in what has been described as global brightening, although this reversal is only considered "partial" for now. This reversal has also been globally uneven, as some of the brightening over the developed countries in the 1980s and 1990s had been counteracted by the increased dimming from the industrialization of the developing countries and the expansion of the global shipping industry, although they have also been making rapid progress in cleaning up air pollution in the recent years.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Cloud condensation nuclei</span> Small particles on which water vapor condenses

Cloud condensation nuclei (CCNs), also known as cloud seeds, are small particles typically 0.2 µm, or one hundredth the size of a cloud droplet. CCNs are a unique subset of aerosols in the atmosphere on which water vapour condenses. This can affect the radiative properties of clouds and the overall atmosphere. Water requires a non-gaseous surface to make the transition from a vapour to a liquid; this process is called condensation.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Aeroplankton</span> Tiny lifeforms floating and drifting in the air, carried by the wind

Aeroplankton are tiny lifeforms that float and drift in the air, carried by wind. Most of the living things that make up aeroplankton are very small to microscopic in size, and many can be difficult to identify because of their tiny size. Scientists collect them for study in traps and sweep nets from aircraft, kites or balloons. The study of the dispersion of these particles is called aerobiology.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Droughts in the Sahel</span> Historical droughts occurring in the Sahel region

The Sahel region of Africa has long experienced a series of historic droughts, dating back to at least the 17th century. The Sahel region is a climate zone sandwiched between the Sudanian Savanna to the south and the Sahara desert to the north, across West and Central Africa. While the frequency of drought in the region is thought to have increased from the end of the 19th century, three long droughts have had dramatic environmental and societal effects upon the Sahel nations. Famine followed severe droughts in the 1910s, the 1940s, and the 1960s, 1970s and 1980s, although a partial recovery occurred from 1975-80. The most recent drought occurred in 2012.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Sea spray</span> Sea water particles that are formed directly from the ocean

Sea spray are aerosol particles formed from the ocean, mostly by ejection into Earth's atmosphere by bursting bubbles at the air-sea interface. Sea spray contains both organic matter and inorganic salts that form sea salt aerosol (SSA). SSA has the ability to form cloud condensation nuclei (CCN) and remove anthropogenic aerosol pollutants from the atmosphere. Coarse sea spray has also been found to inhibit the development of lightning in storm clouds.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Saharan Air Layer</span> Hot, dry and sometimes dust-laden atmospheric layer

The Saharan Air Layer (SAL) is an extremely hot, dry and sometimes dust-laden layer of the atmosphere that often overlies the cooler, more-humid surface air of the Atlantic Ocean. It carries upwards of 60 million tonnes of dust annually over the ocean and the Americas. This annual phenomenon sometimes cools the ocean and suppresses Atlantic tropical cyclogenesis.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Bodélé Depression</span> Large dry lakebed in the Sahara Desert

The Bodélé Depression, located at the southern edge of the Sahara Desert in north central Africa, is the lowest point in Chad. It is 500 km long, 150 km wide and around 160 m deep. Its bottom lies about 155 meters above sea level. The dry endorheic basin is a major source of fertile dust essential for the Amazon rainforest.

Coniology or koniology is the study of atmospheric dust and its effects. Samples of dust are often collected by a device called a coniometer. Coniology refers to the observation and contemplation of dust in an atmosphere, but the study of dust may also be applied to dust in space, therefore connecting it to a variety of atmospheric and extraterrestrial topics.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Mars surface color</span> Extraterrestrial geography

The surface color of the planet Mars appears reddish from a distance because of rusty atmospheric dust. From close up, it looks more of a butterscotch, and other common surface colors include golden, brown, tan, and greenish, depending on minerals.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Iberulite</span>

Iberulites are a particular type of microspherulites that develop in the atmosphere (troposphere), finally falling to the earth's surface. The name comes from the Iberian Peninsula where they were discovered.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Stratospheric aerosol injection</span> Putting particles in the stratosphere to reflect sunlight to limit global heating

Stratospheric aerosol injection is a proposed method of solar geoengineering to reduce global warming. This would introduce aerosols into the stratosphere to create a cooling effect via global dimming and increased albedo, which occurs naturally from volcanic winter. It appears that stratospheric aerosol injection, at a moderate intensity, could counter most changes to temperature and precipitation, take effect rapidly, have low direct implementation costs, and be reversible in its direct climatic effects. The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change concludes that it "is the most-researched [solar geoengineering] method, with high agreement that it could limit warming to below 1.5 °C (2.7 °F)." However, like other solar geoengineering approaches, stratospheric aerosol injection would do so imperfectly and other effects are possible, particularly if used in a suboptimal manner.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Rain dust</span>

Rain dust or snow dust, traditionally known as muddy rain, red rain, or coloured rain, is a variety of rain which contains enough mineral dust, from soils, for the dust to be visible without using a microscope.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Particulates</span> Microscopic solid or liquid matter suspended in the Earths atmosphere

Particulates or atmospheric particulate matter are microscopic particles of solid or liquid matter suspended in the air. The term aerosol commonly refers to the particulate/air mixture, as opposed to the particulate matter alone. Sources of particulate matter can be natural or anthropogenic. They have impacts on climate and precipitation that adversely affect human health, in ways additional to direct inhalation.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">African humid period</span> Holocene climate period during which northern Africa was wetter than today

The African humid period is a climate period in Africa during the late Pleistocene and Holocene geologic epochs, when northern Africa was wetter than today. The covering of much of the Sahara desert by grasses, trees and lakes was caused by changes in the Earth's axial tilt; changes in vegetation and dust in the Sahara which strengthened the African monsoon; and increased greenhouse gases. During the preceding Last Glacial Maximum, the Sahara contained extensive dune fields and was mostly uninhabited. It was much larger than today, and its lakes and rivers such as Lake Victoria and the White Nile were either dry or at low levels. The humid period began about 14,600–14,500 years ago at the end of Heinrich event 1, simultaneously to the Bølling–Allerød warming. Rivers and lakes such as Lake Chad formed or expanded, glaciers grew on Mount Kilimanjaro and the Sahara retreated. Two major dry fluctuations occurred; during the Younger Dryas and the short 8.2 kiloyear event. The African humid period ended 6,000–5,000 years ago during the Piora Oscillation cold period. While some evidence points to an end 5,500 years ago, in the Sahel, Arabia and East Africa, the end of the period appears to have taken place in several steps, such as the 4.2-kiloyear event.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">North Atlantic Aerosols and Marine Ecosystems Study</span>

The North Atlantic Aerosols and Marine Ecosystems Study (NAAMES) was a five-year scientific research program that investigated aspects of phytoplankton dynamics in ocean ecosystems, and how such dynamics influence atmospheric aerosols, clouds, and climate. The study focused on the sub-arctic region of the North Atlantic Ocean, which is the site of one of Earth's largest recurring phytoplankton blooms. The long history of research in this location, as well as relative ease of accessibility, made the North Atlantic an ideal location to test prevailing scientific hypotheses in an effort to better understand the role of phytoplankton aerosol emissions on Earth's energy budget.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Saharan dust</span> Wind-borne mineral dust from the Sahara

Saharan dust is an aeolian mineral dust from the Sahara desert, the largest hot desert in the world. The desert spans just over 9 million square kilometers, from the Atlantic Ocean to the Red Sea, from the Mediterranean sea to the Niger River valley and the Sudan region in the south.

Georgiy L. Stenchikov is an applied mathematician and climate scientist focusing on studies of physical processes that govern the Earth's climate. He is a professor in the Department of Earth Science and Engineering at the King Abdullah University of Science and Technology in Saudi Arabia.

References

  1. ↑ Koren, I.; Kaufman, Y. J.; Washington, R.; Todd, M. C.; Rudich, Y.; Martins, J. V.; Rosenfeld, D. (2006). "The Bodélé depression: a single spot in the Sahara that provides most of the mineral dust to the Amazon forest". Environmental Research Letters. 1 (1): 014005. Bibcode:2006ERL.....1a4005K. doi: 10.1088/1748-9326/1/1/014005 .
  2. ↑ Huneeus, N.; Schulz, M.; Balkanski, Y.; Griesfeller, J.; Prospero, J.; Kinne, S.; Bauer, S.; Boucher, O.; Chin, M.; Dentener, F.; Diehl, T.; Easter, R.; Fillmore, D.; Ghan, S.; Ginoux, P.; Grini, A.; Horowitz, L.; Koch, D.; Krol, M. C.; Landing, W.; Liu, X.; Mahowald, N.; Miller, R.; Morcrette, J. -J.; Myhre, G.; Penner, J.; Perlwitz, J.; Stier, P.; Takemura, T.; Zender, C. S. (2011). "Global dust model intercomparison in Aero Com phase I". Atmospheric Chemistry and Physics. 11 (15): 7781. Bibcode:2011ACP....11.7781H. doi: 10.5194/acp-11-7781-2011 . hdl: 11858/00-001M-0000-0012-1B7F-5 .
  3. ↑ Ginoux, P.; Prospero, J. M.; Gill, T. E.; Hsu, N. C.; Zhao, M. (2012). "Global-scale attribution of anthropogenic and natural dust sources and their emission rates based on MODIS Deep Blue aerosol products". Reviews of Geophysics. 50 (3): RG3005. Bibcode:2012RvGeo..50.3005G. CiteSeerX   10.1.1.295.2808 . doi:10.1029/2012RG000388. S2CID   14181456.
  4. ↑ Stuut,J-B.,Smalley,I.J.,O'Hara-Dhand,K. 2009. Aeolian dust in Europe: African sources and European deposits. Quaternary International 198, 234-245. doi:10.1016/j.quaint 2008.10.007.
  5. ↑ Schlesinger, P.; Mamane, Y.; Grishkan, I. (2006). "Transport of microorganisms to Israel during Saharan dust events". Aerobiologia. 22 (4): 259. doi:10.1007/s10453-006-9038-7. S2CID   84442418. "On a spring clear day, the persisting airborne fungi were Alternaria alternata, Geotrichum candidum, Penicillium chrysogenum, and P. glabrum. However, during two dust events the fungal population was dominated by Alternaria alternata, Aspergillus fumigatus, A. niger, A. thomii, Cladosporium cladosporioides, Penicillium chrysogenum, and P. griseoroseum. This study suggests that Saharan and other desert dust events in the East Mediterranean have a significant effect on the airborne microbial populations, which might impact on health, agriculture, and ecology."
  6. ↑ Usinfo.state.gov. Study Says African Dust Affects Climate in U.S., Caribbean. Archived 2007-06-20 at the Wayback Machine Retrieved on 2007-06-10.
  7. ↑ "Coral Mortality and African Dust". U. S. Geological Survey . December 6, 2006. Archived from the original on Oct 6, 2007. Retrieved 2007-06-10.
  8. ↑ Hansen, Kathryn (December 17, 2007). "Sharan Dust has chilling effect on North Atlantic". NASA. Archived from the original on 2017-05-31. Retrieved 2008-01-08.
  9. ↑ O'Brien, Dennis (June 24, 2005). "Blowing in the Wind". The Baltimore Sun. Archived from the original on Oct 6, 2007. Retrieved 2007-06-10– via University of Utah Department of Meteorology.
  10. ↑ Tong, Daniel Q.; Wang, Julian X. L.; Gill, Thomas E.; Lei, Hang; Wang, Binyu (2017-05-16). "Intensified dust storm activity and Valley fever infection in the southwestern United States: Dust and Valley Fever Intensification". Geophysical Research Letters. 44 (9): 4304–4312. doi:10.1002/2017GL073524. PMC   6108409 . PMID   30166741.
  11. ↑ Goudie, Andrew S. (February 2014). "Desert dust and human health disorders". Environment International. 63: 101–113. doi:10.1016/j.envint.2013.10.011. PMID   24275707. Archived from the original on 2020-08-18. Retrieved 2019-12-03.
  12. ↑ Trijonis, John (January 1979). "Visibility in the southwest—An exploration of the historical data base". Atmospheric Environment. 13 (6): 833–843. Bibcode:1979AtmEn..13..833T. doi:10.1016/0004-6981(79)90274-9.
  13. ↑ Li, Junran; Kandakji, Tarek; Lee, Jeffrey A.; Tatarko, John; Blackwell, John; Gill, Thomas E.; Collins, Joe D. (April 2018). "Blowing dust and highway safety in the southwestern United States: Characteristics of dust emission "hotspots" and management implications". Science of the Total Environment. 621: 1023–1032. Bibcode:2018ScTEn.621.1023L. doi:10.1016/j.scitotenv.2017.10.124. PMID   29102198.
  14. ↑ Ballantyne, A. P.; Brahney, J.; Fernandez, D.; Lawrence, C. L.; Saros, J.; Neff, J. C. (2011-09-23). "Biogeochemical response of alpine lakes to a recent increase in dust deposition in the Southwestern, US". Biogeosciences. 8 (9): 2689–2706. Bibcode:2011BGeo....8.2689B. doi: 10.5194/bg-8-2689-2011 . ISSN   1726-4189.
  15. ↑ Painter, Thomas H.; Skiles, S. McKenzie; Deems, Jeffrey S.; Brandt, W. Tyler; Dozier, Jeff (2018-01-28). "Variation in Rising Limb of Colorado River Snowmelt Runoff Hydrograph Controlled by Dust Radiative Forcing in Snow". Geophysical Research Letters. 45 (2): 797–808. Bibcode:2018GeoRL..45..797P. doi: 10.1002/2017GL075826 . S2CID   134958509.
  16. ↑ Neff, J. C.; Ballantyne, A. P.; Farmer, G. L.; Mahowald, N. M.; Conroy, J. L.; Landry, C. C.; Overpeck, J. T.; Painter, T. H.; Lawrence, C. R. (March 2008). "Increasing eolian dust deposition in the western United States linked to human activity". Nature Geoscience. 1 (3): 189–195. Bibcode:2008NatGe...1..189N. doi:10.1038/ngeo133. ISSN   1752-0894. S2CID   10132569.
  17. 1 2 Routson, Cody C.; Arcusa, Stéphanie H.; McKay, Nicholas P.; Overpeck, Jonathan T. (2019-07-19). "A 4,500‐Year‐Long Record of Southern Rocky Mountain Dust Deposition". Geophysical Research Letters. 46 (14): 8281–8288. Bibcode:2019GeoRL..46.8281R. doi:10.1029/2019GL083255. hdl: 2027.42/151372 . ISSN   0094-8276. S2CID   198396202.
  18. 1 2 Routson, Cody C.; Overpeck, Jonathan T.; Woodhouse, Connie A.; Kenney, William F. (2016-02-17). Zhu, Liping (ed.). "Three Millennia of Southwestern North American Dustiness and Future Implications". PLOS ONE. 11 (2): e0149573. Bibcode:2016PLoSO..1149573R. doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0149573 . ISSN   1932-6203. PMC   4757576 . PMID   26886350.
  19. ↑ Abruzzi, William S. (1995-03-01). "The social and ecological consequences of early cattle ranching in the Little Colorado River Basin". Human Ecology. 23 (1): 75–98. doi:10.1007/BF01190099. ISSN   1572-9915. S2CID   154833651.
  20. ↑ Pye, K. (1987). Aeolian Dust and Dust Deposits. London: Academic Press. pp. 63–91. ISBN   978-0-12-568690-7.
  21. ↑ Okin, Gregory S.; Reheis, Marith C. (May 2002). "An ENSO predictor of dust emission in the southwestern United States: AN ENSO PREDICTOR OF DUST EMISSION". Geophysical Research Letters. 29 (9): 46–1–46-3. doi:10.1029/2001GL014494. S2CID   129866494.
  22. ↑ Achakulwisut, Pattanun; Shen, Lu; Mickley, Loretta J. (2017-11-27). "What Controls Springtime Fine Dust Variability in the Western United States? Investigating the 2002-2015 Increase in Fine Dust in the U.S. Southwest: Controlling factors of western U.S. dust". Journal of Geophysical Research: Atmospheres. 122 (22): 12, 449–12, 467. doi: 10.1002/2017JD027208 . S2CID   102488347.
  23. ↑ Reheis, Marith C.; Urban, Frank E. (June 2011). "Regional and climatic controls on seasonal dust deposition in the southwestern U.S." Aeolian Research. 3 (1): 3–21. Bibcode:2011AeoRe...3....3R. doi:10.1016/j.aeolia.2011.03.008.
  24. 1 2 Arcusa, Stephanie H; McKay, Nicholas P; Routson, Cody C; Munoz, Samuel E (2019-09-18). "Dust-drought interactions over the last 15,000 years: A network of lake sediment records from the San Juan Mountains, Colorado". The Holocene. 30 (4): 559–574. doi:10.1177/0959683619875192. ISSN   0959-6836. S2CID   220596313.
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