Mineral industry of Colombia

Last updated

Monument to the miners in Zipaquira, Cundinamarca Monumento Minero.jpg
Monument to the miners in Zipaquirá, Cundinamarca
Sea salt exploitation in Manaure Salinas de Manaure.JPG
Sea salt exploitation in Manaure

Mineral industry of Colombia refers to the extraction of valuable minerals or other geological materials in Colombia. Colombia is well-endowed with minerals and energy resources. It has the largest coal reserves in Latin America, and is second to Brazil in hydroelectric potential. Estimates of petroleum reserves in 1995 were 3.1 billion barrels (490,000,000 m3). Colombia also possesses significant amounts of nickel and gold. Other important metals included platinum and silver, which were extracted in much smaller quantities. Colombia also produces copper, small amounts of iron ore, and bauxite. Nonmetallic mined minerals include salt, limestone, sulfur, gypsum, dolomite, barite, feldspar, clay, magnetite, mica, talcum, and marble. Colombia also produces most of the world's emeralds. Despite the variety of minerals available for exploitation, Colombia still had to import substances such as iron, copper, and aluminum to meet its industrial needs.

Contents

Materials recovered by mining in the country include oil, with proved reserves of 1,506,000,000 bbl (239,400,000 m3) (2006 estimate) and natural gas, with annual production of 6.18 billion m3 (2004 estimate) and reserves of 114.4 billion m3 (1 January 2005 estimate). [1]

Minerals—in particular coal, oil, and natural gas, but also emeralds, gold, and nickel—have played an important role in Colombia's GDP and foreign trade in the last 20 years. Accounting for only 1.4 percent of GDP and 13 percent of total exports between 1980 and 1984, minerals represented about 5 percent of GDP and 42 percent of total exports in 2006. The minerals industry has compensated to a certain extent for the decreasing role of agriculture and has expanded the importance of commodities for the economy as a whole. Colombia is the world's leading source of emeralds, and illegal mining is commonplace. Illegal mining, especially of gold, has grown due to Colombia's aggressive counter narcotics policies, which increase the risks associated with the drug economy. [2] However, production of precious minerals is small scale despite high international prices for minerals such as gold. [3]

History

Poporo Quimbaya and pestle. Phytomorphic (fruit-shaped) lime container, gold, 300 BC - 1000 AD Poporo by Turista Perene.jpg
Poporo Quimbaya and pestle. Phytomorphic (fruit-shaped) lime container, gold, 300 BC - 1000 AD

Mining of kaolinite and hematite for pottery pigments started in what is today Colombia since the mid-late neolithic, with archaeological evidence of ceramic production and sedentary groups living in El Abra settlements and the Colombian Caribbean coast (near the towns of San Jacinto, Monsú, Puerto Chacho, and Puerto Hormiga archaeological site) beginning around the year 5940 BCE around the town of San Jacinto. [4] This would place these pottery shards among the oldest ever recovered anywhere. The earliest examples of gold mining and goldwork have been attributed to the Tumaco people of the Pacific coast and date to around 325 BCE. Gold would play a pivotal role in luring the Spanish conquistadores to the area during the 16th century. [5]

Gold was considered sacred by most of the Precolumbian civilizations of the area. In Muisca mythology, Gold (Chiminigagua) was considered itself a deity, and the force of creation. Copper mining was very important for the classic Quimbaya civilization, which developed the tumbaga alloy. [6] [7]

Although significant in the colonial economy, it never commanded a large portion of Colombia's GDP in modern times. With the discovery and exploitation of large coal reserves, however, the role of mining in the national economy expanded in the late 1980s. [8]

Mineral resources of Colombia

Oil

Petroleum production (red) and exports (black), 1960-2012 Colombia oil production.png
Petroleum production (red) and exports (black), 1960-2012

The discovery of 2 billion barrels (320,000,000 m3) of high-quality oil at the Cusiana and Cupiagua fields, about 200 kilometres (120 mi) east of Bogotá, has enabled Colombia to become a net oil exporter since 1986. The Transandino pipeline transports oil from Orito in the Department of Putumayo to the Pacific port of Tumaco in the Department of Nariño. [9] Total crude oil production averages 620 thousand barrels per day (99,000 m3/d); about 184 thousand barrels per day (29,300 m3/d) is exported.

Oil Production 2011-2021 (kb/d) [10] : 15 
20112012201320142015201620172018201920202021
91594410109901006886854865886781738

The Pastrana government liberalized the petroleum investment policies, leading to an increase in exploration activity. Refining capacity cannot satisfy domestic demand, so some refined products, especially gasoline, must be imported. Plans for the construction of new refineries are under development.

Natural gas

Pipeline map of Colombia, 2010 Map of pipelines in Colombia blank.png
Pipeline map of Colombia, 2010

While Colombia has vast hydroelectric potential, a prolonged drought in 1992 forced severe electricity rationing throughout the country until mid-1993. The consequences of the drought on electricity-generating capacity caused the government to commission the construction or upgrading of 10 thermoelectric power plants. Half will be coal-fired, and half will be fired by natural gas. The government also has begun awarding bids for the construction of a natural gas pipeline system that will extend from the country's extensive gas fields to its major population centers. Plans call for this project to make natural gas available to millions of Colombian households by the middle of the next decade.

Starting in 2004, Colombia became a net energy exporter, exporting electricity to Ecuador and developing connections to Peru, Venezuela and Panama to export to those markets as well. The Trans-Caribbean pipeline connecting western Venezuela to Panama through Colombia was inaugurated by October, 2007, thanks to cooperation between presidents Álvaro Uribe of Colombia, Martín Torrijos of Panama and Hugo Chávez of Venezuela.

Natural gas Production 2011-2021 (billion cubic metres) [11] : 29 
20112012201320142015201620172018201920202021
10.511.513.212.311.612.011.812.412.612.512.6

Since 2022, Colombia has encountered new challenges in its energy sector. President Gustavo Petro, with a strong focus on combating climate change, has declined to issue licenses for new natural gas exploration, despite dwindling reserves. This policy has led to expectations of increased energy costs, compelling the country to import liquefied natural gas (LNG), which is substantially more expensive than domestic sources. The state oil company, Ecopetrol, is attempting to address this shortfall by restarting previously suspended projects and increasing output from smaller fields. Nonetheless, projections indicate a widening gap between gas supply and demand, potentially impacting the competitiveness of Colombian industries. [12]

Coal

Coal production (red) and exports (black), 1970-2012 Colombia Coal Production.png
Coal production (red) and exports (black), 1970-2012
Cerrejon coal mine Cerrejonmine2.png
Cerrejón coal mine

Colombia's coal output has increased consistently from 4 million tons in 1981 to 65.6 million tons in 2006, when it contributed 1.4 percent of the world's coal production. In 2006 Colombia accounted for 81 percent of the total coal production in Central and South America. Furthermore, 94 percent of Colombia's coal is of very good quality and is classified as hard, with high heat-generating capacity. Coal has been Colombia's second-largest export since 2001. [3]

The largest coal mines—and the ones that generate the most exports—are located in the north of the country, in the departments of La Guajira and Cesar. Cerrejón is considered to be one of the largest open-pit coal mines in the world. [3] The 2008 coal production in Cerrejon was calculated in 31.2 million tons. [13] There are also smaller coal mines scattered throughout the rest of the nation. [3]

Coal production 2011-2021 (Exajoules) [11] : 38 
20112012201320142015201620172018201920202021
2.472.582.472.572.492.622.632.482.451.501.71

Since 2000 government participation in the production of coal has been decreasing, and there has been a shift to private domestic and foreign investors. Major changes have occurred in the institutional framework of the coal industry in recent years. In particular, in 2000 the government sold the stakes that Colombia Coal (Carbocol), a state-owned company, had in Cerrejón, and the new mining code introduced in 2001 led the government to concentrate on its role as regulator through the Ministry of Mines and Energy. [3]

In 2020, Colombia had 5 trillion short tons of proved coal reserves, mostly bituminous coal, making it the second-largest amount in South America behind Brazil. Colombia produced 54 million short tons (MMst) of coal in 2020, with 9 MMst consumed domestically. However, coal production fell by 42% in 2020 due to the COVID-19 pandemic and a 91-day strike at a major mine in the north of the country. Most of the coal produced in Colombia is exported, making it the fourth-largest coal exporter in the world in 2020, after Australia, Indonesia, and Russia. Coal was the country's second-largest export commodity by value, after oil and petroleum products. Colombia exported 75 MMst of coal in 2020, primarily to Europe and Latin America. In the same year, Colombia was the largest source of U.S. coal imports, accounting for 71% of total U.S. coal imports, or about 6.1 MMst. [14]

In 2021, Colombia was South America’s largest coal producer and the second-largest producer of petroleum and other liquids, after Brazil. The country is also a significant oil exporter; in 2021, it was the fifth-largest crude oil exporter to the United States. Despite being a major coal producer, Colombia uses very little coal domestically, relying mainly on hydropower for its electricity needs and exporting most of its coal production. [14]

Gold

The production of gold during 2008 was calculated at 15,482 kilograms (34,132 lb), with an increase of 34.2% with respect to the previous year. [15] As of 2009, La Colosa mining project (to be exploited by AngloGold Ashanti) near Cajamarca, Tolima is in planning phase, with calculated reserves of 12.9 million ounces. [16] However, there is controversy about the possible environmental damage. [17] In the Colombian economy, Gold is the most important metal in terms of short-term revenues.

Silver

Platinum

Copper

Copper is a growing mining industry in Colombia. [18] There are many new projects that aim to give Colombia the ability to mine more copper. [19] Currently, there is only one company in Colombia that mines for copper. [18]

Nickel

The Cerro Matoso nickel mine, located in Montelíbano, Córdoba in northern Colombia, combines a lateritic nickel ore deposit with a low cost ferronickel smelter. It produces an average of 52,000 tons of nickel/year, which places this mine in the second place of nickel producers worldwide. [20] Cerromatoso is currently owned by BHP. Disagreement among the direction and the trade union workers, with frequent strikes produced heavy losses during 2008 [21]

Halite

Halite hand-carved Salt Cathedral of Zipaquira Estacion galeria catedral de sal.JPG
Halite hand-carved Salt Cathedral of Zipaquirá

Halite was explored by the Precolumbian cultures such as the Muisca, as an important trade product. [22] Early halite mining is dated about 5th century BC. [23] The traditional halite mining was described by Alexander von Humboldt during his visit to Zipaquira in 1801. [24] Nowadays, the Zipaquirá halite mine contains the Salt Cathedral of Zipaquirá, entirely hand-carved in halite, including the religious icons, ornaments and architectural details; the Salt Park and the national mineralogy museum.

Gemstones

Gachala Emerald Gachala Emerald 3526711557 849c4c7367.jpg
Gachalá Emerald

Colombia is the main producer of finer quality emeralds worldwide. Colombia produced 2.7 Mcarats (540 kg) of emeralds during 2008. [15] Emerald mines are located both in the Boyacá and Cundinamarca Departments. Colombian emeralds constitute 50-95% of the world production, the numbers depending on the year, source and emeralds grade. [25] [26] [27]

Relevance

The Colombian mining industry remains as one of the most dynamic and promising sectors of the Colombian economy, in just one year the investment has reached record figures in excess of two billion dollars and the trend in the short term is not reversed. The mining industry contributes with the economic growth and social development and the development of the regions where the activity is legally established. In addition this demonstrates that the contribution in the social and environmental component is higher than the industry average. [28]

Government efforts to expand mining in Colombia were needed to encourage private sector investment. In the late 1980s, much of Colombia remained inadequately charted, and reserve estimates were considered only marginally reliable. The government set a policy of developing infrastructure (roads, electricity, and communications), providing technical assistance, and encouraging sound credit and legal policies to minimize problems with land titling. Through joint ventures and the promotion of small mining companies, government officials believed that the mining sector could contribute more to national employment, income, and wealth.

Human rights and crime

According to a 2013 U.S. Department of Labor report on the worst forms of child labor and labor conditions around the world, the Colombian mining industry employs underage children. The report indicated that Colombia's industrial sector employed 20% of the working children who were aged 5 to 14 years old. [29] However, and despite the government's participation in a "4-year, $9 million project to combat child labor and improve workplace health and safety in mining", children continue to engage in child labor. In fact, the Bureau of International Labor Affairs issued a List of Goods Produced by Child Labor or Forced Labor in December 2014 where Colombia was mentioned for its use of underage children in brick, coal, gold and emerald mining. [30]

Mining infrastructure is a common target of terrorist attacks, specially the oil and gas pipelines, mainly by the Farc and ELN guerrillas. The mining companies have been implicated in extortion payments to guerrillas in exchange for access to mining locations. [31] The Caño Limón – Coveñas pipeline, which stretches 780 km from the Caño Limón to the Atlantic port of Coveñas, has come under heavy attack, including 170 attacks in 2002 alone, The pipeline remained out of operation for 266 days of that year and the government estimates that these bombings reduced the GDP of Colombia by 0.5%. [32] The bombings, which have occurred on average once every 5 days, have caused substantial environmental damage, often in fragile rainforests and jungles. [33]

On October 14, 1998, a pipeline exploded because of bombs placed by ELN guerrillas. The burning oil spread fire across the Machuca village near Segovia, Antioquia. 85 peasants died and over 30 were injured. [34] On the morning of December 13, 1998, after two days of combat between the army protecting the pipelines and the FARC, a Colombian Air Force helicopter carried out an air attack against guerrillas near the village of Santo Domingo, including the use of cluster-bombs. After the bombing was over, the bodies of seventeen civilians were found in Santo Domingo, including seven children. The case was subsequently handed over to a Colombian military court, with convictions of 31 years of prison for the accused. The decision called for the case to be judged in civil court and for comprehensive reparations to the victims. [35]

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Economy of Colombia</span>

The economy of Colombia is the fourth largest in Latin America as measured by gross domestic product and the third-largest economic power in South America. Colombia has experienced a historic economic boom over the last decade. Throughout most of the 20th century, Colombia was Latin America's 4th and 3rd largest economy when measured by nominal GDP, real GDP, GDP (PPP), and real GDP at chained PPPs. Between 2012 and 2014, it became the 3rd largest in Latin America by nominal GDP. As of 2018, the GDP (PPP) per capita has increased to over US$14,000, and real gross domestic product at chained PPPs increased from US$250 billion in 1990 to nearly US$800 billion. Poverty levels were as high as 65% in 1990, but decreased to under 30% by 2014, and 27% by 2018. They decreased by an average of 1.35% per year since 1990.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Mining in Japan</span> Overview of mining in Japan

Mining in Japan is minimal because Japan does not possess many on-shore mineral resources. Many of the on-shore minerals have already been mined to the point that it has become less expensive to import minerals. There are small deposits of coal, oil, iron and minerals in the Japanese archipelago. Japan is scarce in critical natural resources and has been heavily dependent on imported energy and raw materials. There are major deep sea mineral resources in the seabed of Japan. This is not mined yet due to technological obstacles for deep sea mining.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Mining in Australia</span> Primary sector industry

Mining in Australia has long been a significant primary sector industry and contributor to the Australian economy by providing export income, royalty payments and employment. Historically, mining booms have also encouraged population growth via immigration to Australia, particularly the gold rushes of the 1850s. Many different ores, gems and minerals have been mined in the past and a wide variety are still mined throughout the country.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Mining in Brazil</span> Major industry in Brazil, South America

Mining in Brazil is centered on the extraction of iron, copper, gold, aluminum, manganese, tin, niobium, and nickel. About gemstones, Brazil is the world's largest producer of amethyst, topaz, agate and is a big producer of tourmaline, emerald, aquamarine, garnet and opal.

Venezuela has the largest conventional oil reserves and the second-largest natural gas reserves in the Western Hemisphere. In addition Venezuela has non-conventional oil deposits approximately equal to the world's reserves of conventional oil. Venezuela is also amongst world leaders in hydroelectric production, supplying a majority of the nation's electrical power through the process.

Energy in Kazakhstan describes energy and electricity production, consumption and import in Kazakhstan and the politics of Kazakhstan related to energy.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Mining industry of Romania</span>

Romania ranks tenth in the world in terms of the diversity of minerals produced in the country. Around 60 different minerals are currently produced in Romania. The richest mineral deposits in the country are halite.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Mining in Afghanistan</span>

Mining in Afghanistan was controlled by the Ministry of Mines and Petroleum, prior to the August 15th takeover by the Taliban. It is headquartered in Kabul with regional offices in other parts of the country. Afghanistan has over 1,400 mineral fields, containing barite, chromite, coal, copper, gold, iron ore, lead, natural gas, petroleum, precious and semi-precious stones, salt, sulfur, lithium, talc, and zinc, among many other minerals. Gemstones include high-quality emeralds, lapis lazuli, red garnet and ruby. According to a joint study by The Pentagon and the United States Geological Survey, Afghanistan has an estimated US$1 trillion of untapped minerals.

Mining has been conducted in Georgia for centuries. Today, Georgia's mineral industry produces manganese, copper and various types of quarried stone. Although the Georgian economy has experienced significant economic growth in recent years, growth in the mining and metallurgical sector has lagged behind that of the overall economy.

The mineral industry of Russia is one of the world's leading mineral industries and accounts for a large percentage of the Commonwealth of Independent States' production of a range of mineral products, including metals, industrial minerals, and mineral fuels. In 2005, Russia ranked among the leading world producers or was a significant producer of a vast range of mineral commodities, including aluminum, arsenic, cement, copper, magnesium compounds and metals, nitrogen, palladium, silicon, nickel and vanadium.

The second-largest mineral industry in the world is the mineral industry of Africa, which implies large quantities of resources due to Africa being the second largest continent, with 30.37 million square kilometres of land.With a population of 1.4 billion living there, mineral exploration and production constitute significant parts of their economies for many African countries and remain keys to economic growth. Africa is richly endowed with mineral reserves and ranks first in quantity of world reserves for bauxite, cobalt, industrial diamond, phosphate rock, platinum-group metals (PGM), vermiculite, and zirconium.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Mineral industry of Peru</span>

The mineral industry of Peru has played an important role in the nation's history and been integral to the country's economic growth for several decades. The industry has also contributed to environmental degradation and environmental injustice; and is a source of environmental conflicts that shape public debate on good governance and development.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Oil and mining industry of Niger</span>

The mineral mining industry is a crucial piece of the Economy of Niger. Exports of minerals consistently account for 40% of exports.

Resources are classified as either biotic or abiotic on the basis of their origin. India contains a multitude of both types of resource and its economy, especially in rural areas, is heavily dependent on their consumption or export. Due to overconsumption, they are rapidly being depleted.

Mining is an important industry in Pakistan. Pakistan has deposits of several minerals including coal, copper, gold, chromite, mineral salt, bauxite and several other minerals. There are also a variety of precious and semi-precious minerals that are also mined. These include peridot, aquamarine, topaz, ruby, emerald, rare-earth minerals bastnaesite and xenotime, sphene, tourmaline, and many varieties and types of quartz.

The natural resources of the Arctic are the mineral and animal natural resources which provide or have potential to provide utility or economic benefit to humans. The Arctic contains significant amounts of minerals, boreal forests, marine life, and fresh water.

Natural resources are abundant in Kosovo. Kosovo is mainly rich in lignite and mineral resources such as: coal, zinc, lead, silver and chromium, but also with productive agricultural land. Kosovo is also rich in forests, rivers, mountains and soil; Kosovo is especially rich in coal, being aligned among European countries as the third with the largest coal reserves. Kosovo possesses around 14,700 billion tons of lignite in reserves, which aligns Kosovo as the country with the fifth largest lignite reserves in the world.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Mining in Taiwan</span>

Mining has been practiced in Taiwan for hundreds of years. Sulfur was an early important resource collected on the island. Coal mining expanded in the 19th century to keep up with demand from increased foreign trade. Heavy industry was further expanded under Japanese rule, but air raids towards the end of World War II decimated mining infrastructure, falling below 19th century production levels. Copper mining expanded in the mid-20th century, but ended in the 1980s following a global collapse in the price of copper.

The Arctic zone of the Russian Federation is the territory of the Extreme North, which is the largest among the Arctic states. It includes the land part, water area and continental shelf of the seas of the Arctic Ocean. If we take the Arctic Circle as the southern boundary of the Arctic, it covers an area of over 9 million km^2, of which almost 7 million km^2 is in the water area. In the Russian Arctic, territory mastered by man beyond the Arctic Circle and near it, as well as reserves of untouched nature, coexist. The territories of the following subjects of the Russian Federation - the Arkhangelsk, Murmansk regions, the Republic of Sakha (Yakutia), the Krasnoyarsk Territory, the Nenets, Yamalo-Nenets and Chukotka Autonomous Districts, the Komi Republic with a population of over 1 million people - are fully or partly included in the Arctic zone.

References

  1. ↑ Unidad de Planeación Minero Energética - UPME (2004), Boletín Estadístico de Minas y Energía 1994 - 2004. PDF file in Spanish.
  2. ↑ International Crisis Group. "http://www.crisisgroup.org/~/media/Files/latin-america/colombia/053-the-day-after-tomorrow-colombia-s-farc-and-the-end-of-the-conflict.pdf Archived 2014-12-13 at the Wayback Machine ", CrisisGroup.org. 11 December 2014. Retrieved 11 December 2014.
  3. 1 2 3 4 5 Roberto Steiner and Hernán Vallejo. "Mining and energy". In Colombia: A Country Study (Rex A. Hudson, ed.). Library of Congress Federal Research Division (2010). PD-icon.svg This article incorporates text from this source, which is in the public domain .
  4. ↑ Stahl, Peter W.; Oyuela-Caycedo, Augusto (2007-09-01). "Early prehistoric sedentism and seasonal animal exploitation in the Caribbean lowlands of Colombia". Journal of Anthropological Archaeology. 26 (3): 329–349. doi:10.1016/j.jaa.2007.02.004. ISSN   0278-4165.
  5. ↑ Lewis, P. R.; Jones, G. D. B. (1970). "Roman Gold-Mining in North-West Spain". The Journal of Roman Studies. 60 (1): 169–185. doi:10.1017/S0075435800043343. ISSN   0075-4358.
  6. ↑ Demortier, G.; Ruvalcaba-Sil, J. L. (1996-09-02). "Differential PIXE analysis of Mesoamerican jewelry items". Nuclear Instruments and Methods in Physics Research Section B: Beam Interactions with Materials and Atoms. Ion Beam Analysis. 118 (1): 352–358. doi:10.1016/0168-583X(96)00248-0. ISSN   0168-583X.
  7. ↑ Cesareo, Roberto; Bustamante, Angel D.; Fabian, Julio S.; Del Pilar Zambrano, Sandra; Alva, Walter; Chero, Luis Z.; Del Carmen Espinoza, Maria C.; Rodriguez, Rosendo R.; Seclen, Marco F.; Gutierrez, Fidel V.; Levano, Edgard B.; Gonzales, Juan A.; Rizzutto, Marcia A.; Poli, Enrico; Calza, Cristiane (2013-12-01). "Multilayered artifacts in the pre-Columbian metallurgy from the North of Peru". Applied Physics A. 113 (4): 889–903. doi:10.1007/s00339-013-7738-8. ISSN   1432-0630.
  8. ↑ Lachaud, Michée; Maldonado, Jorge H. (January 2011). "Aproximación al cálculo del crecimiento real de Colombia: aportes metodológicos para la inclusión en las cuentas nacionales de los impactos del agotamiento del carbón y del gas natural". Revista de Economía del Rosario. 14 (1): 1–29. S2CID   152804878 . Retrieved 2023-11-11– via ResearchGate.
  9. ↑ "BOST project". UNCO United Refineries. Retrieved 2008-06-08.
  10. ↑ "bp Statistical Review of World Energy" (PDF). www.bp.com (71st ed.). 2022. Retrieved 11 June 2024.
  11. 1 2 "bp Statistical Review of World Energy" (PDF). www.bp.com (71st ed.). 2022. Retrieved 11 June 2024.
  12. ↑ Jaramillo, Andrea (June 5, 2024). "Colombian Companies Face Energy Crunch as Gas Reserves Plunge". www.bloomberg.com. Retrieved 2024-06-11.
  13. ↑ "Cerrejon Ltd". Archived from the original on 2010-08-19. Retrieved 2009-10-02.
  14. 1 2 "International - U.S. Energy Information Administration (EIA)". www.eia.gov. March 31, 2022. Retrieved 2024-06-11.PD-icon.svg This article incorporates text from this source, which is in the public domain .
  15. 1 2 Investment opportunities in Colombian mining industry
  16. ↑ "Reservas inferidas de 12,9 millones de onzas de oro tiene la mina La Colosa, en Cajamarca (Tolima)" (in Spanish). Archived from the original on 2012-09-06.
  17. ↑ "Minambiente da luz verde a fase exploratoria en La Colosa, pero solamente en áreas de rastrojo" (in Spanish). May 6, 2009. Archived from the original on May 28, 2009.
  18. 1 2 Peñaloza, Lina Marcela. "Colombia wants to enter the world copper market - LatinAmerican Post". latinamericanpost.com. Retrieved 2021-03-02.
  19. ↑ Energiminas. "Con ocho proyectos, Colombia busca convertirse en importante productor de cobre en próximos dos años". Energiminas (in Spanish). Retrieved 2021-03-02.
  20. ↑ "Cerro matoso duplicará producción de níquel y montará planta térmica" (PDF) (in Spanish). Archived from the original (PDF) on 2012-09-02.
  21. ↑ "Levantada la huelga de Cerro Matoso, que dejó pérdidas por 200 mil millones de pesos" (in Spanish). El Tiempo. 31 March 2008.
  22. ↑ Cardale de Schrimpff, Marianne: Boletín Museo del Oro Archived 2009-10-15 at the Wayback Machine , Banco de la República, Colombia Archived 2009-09-26 at the Wayback Machine , No. 1, enero-abril de 1978, p. 39-41
  23. ↑ Langebaek, Carl Henrik (1987). Mercados, poblamiento e integración étnica entre los muiscas —siglo XVI. Banco de la República, Bogotá.
  24. ↑ "Memoria razonada de las salinas de Zipaquirá", Alexander von Humboldt, Ed. Epígrafe, con el respaldo de Colciencias, referenciado por Fundación Editorial Epígrafe Archived 2008-12-16 at the Wayback Machine , Colombia, 2003
  25. ↑ Krzysztof Dydyński (2003). Colombia. Lonely Planet. p. 21. ISBN   0-86442-674-7.
  26. ↑ Branquet, Y; Laumenier, B; Cheilletz, A; Giuliani, G (1999). "Emeralds in the Eastern Cordillera of Colombia - two tectonic settings for one mineralization". Geology. 27 (7): 597–600. Bibcode:1999Geo....27..597B. doi:10.1130/0091-7613(1999)027<0597:EITECO>2.3.CO;2.
  27. ↑ Carrillo, V (2001). Compilación y análisis de la información geológica referente a la explotación esmeraldífera en Colombia - Informe de contrato 124. Ingeominas.
  28. ↑ Colombia mining - international mining show 2009 Archived 2009-12-07 at the Wayback Machine
  29. ↑ "2013 Findings on the Worst Forms of Child Labor -Colombia-". Archived from the original on 2016-04-20. Retrieved 2015-02-01.
  30. ↑ List of Goods Produced by Child Labor or Forced Labor
  31. ↑ El Colombiano: Eln Cupola: 40 years for Machuca, March 8, 2007
  32. ↑ "Terrorism Incidents and Significant Dates". MIPT Lawson Library. Archived from the original on 2008-07-09.
  33. ↑ "Estalla otro oleoducto en Colombia por atentado de las FARC" (in Spanish). May 8, 2008. Archived from the original on May 13, 2008.
  34. ↑ "Machuca 1998-2008 -Un esfuerzo por construir memoria" (in Spanish). October 17, 2008. Archived from the original on January 3, 2011.
  35. ↑ "Condena de 31 años para militares involucrados en bombardeo a Santo Domingo" (in Spanish). September 26, 2009.
This page is based on this Wikipedia article
Text is available under the CC BY-SA 4.0 license; additional terms may apply.
Images, videos and audio are available under their respective licenses.