Nest-building in primates

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Bornean orangutan (Pongo pygmaeus) in its nest Bornean Orangutan in nest.jpg
Bornean orangutan ( Pongo pygmaeus ) in its nest

Certain extant strepsirrhines (lemurs and lorisoids) and hominid apes (humans, chimpanzees, gorillas and orangutans) build nests for both sleeping and raising families. Hominid apes build nests for sleeping at night, and in some species, for sleeping during the day. Nest-building by hominid apes is learned by infants watching the mother and others in the group, and is considered tool use rather than animal architecture. [1] [2] Neither Old World monkeys nor New World monkeys nest. [3]

Contents

It has been speculated that a major evolutionary advance in the cognitive abilities of hominoids may first have occurred due to the development of nest-building behaviour and that the transition from nest-building to ground-sleeping led to "modifications in the quality and quantity of hominid sleep, which in turn may have enhanced waking survival skills through priming, promoted creativity and innovation, and aided the consolidation of procedural memories". [4]

In strepsirrhines

Strepsirrhines may be nocturnal, diurnal, or crepuscular. [5] Some may either occupy holes in trees or build nests. [5] Unlike the hominid apes, strepsirrhines build nests by instinct and use them for breeding purposes. [1] Strepsirrhines' mothers either carry their young on their bodies, conceal their young in foliage while they venture out to feed, returning periodically to feed and groom them, or leave them in a nest built for that purpose. [6]

In lemurs

Some strepsirrhines, such as mouse lemurs, build nests. Gray Mouse Lemur 1.JPG
Some strepsirrhines, such as mouse lemurs, build nests.

Among lemurs, females of smaller species, such as the mouse lemur and giant mouse lemur, build leaf nests before birth for the protection of their young. [7] Leaf nests in golden-brown mouse lemurs may provide thermoregulation benefits. [8] Male mouse lemurs have been found sharing nests with up to seven females at a time during the mating season. [9]

In the Ruffed lemur (Varecia variegata), nests are made from locally collected material and may also be lined with hair plucked from their own body. [10] In larger lemur species such as the Verreaux's sifaka, ring-tailed lemur and common brown lemur, the young cling to the mother and nests are not built. [5]

Aye-ayes, being nocturnal, build oval-shaped nests from nearby branches and lianas for day time use. These may be built in a tangle of lianas or in a fork of a tree, at a height of 7 to 20 metres (23 to 66 ft) above the ground. These nests may be re-used by other aye-ayes once the original occupant moves on. A single occupant uses a nest for a few days, refreshing it regularly with fresh vegetation. [11] Aye-ayes build and use many nests—during one study, 8 aye-ayes were recorded to build and use as many as a hundred different nests over a period of 2 years. [12]

In lorisoids

Lesser bushbaby mothers initially shelter their offspring, usually twins, in a nest or tree hollow, later concealing the infants in foliage while they forage at night. [9] In some species, such as dwarf galagos, the day-sleeping nests may be shared by groups of females or occasionally by visiting males. [13]

In hominid apes

Hominid apes construct nests during the day or by night, primarily for resting. The nests are not built using instinct but through behavioural patterns which are learned by the young from their parents or clan. Nest building is habitual behaviour, [14] and nest-counts and faecal analysis at each nest site can be used to estimate hominid ape population counts and composition. [15] In the case of orangutans and chimpanzees, social influences are probably essential for the animals to develop successful nesting-behaviour. [1]

The nest building behavior is estimated to have originated during the Miocene, when the body of the ancestors of modern apes increased in size. Eventually they became so big that it was no longer possible for them to get both safe and proper sleep on bare branches alone, so they started building sleeping platforms in the trees. This appeared to have happened when their weight passed 30 kilos, as only apes above 32 kilos build nests. [16] [17] Which in turn led to shorter and deeper sleep. [18]

In gorillas

Gorilla night nest Gorilla nest.jpg
Gorilla night nest

Gorillas construct nests for day and night use. Day nests tend to be simple aggregations of branches and leaves on the ground, while night nests are more elaborate constructions usually on the ground but sometimes on trees, especially those of juveniles and females in areas submitted to a high poaching pressure. The nests may be 1 to 5 feet (0.30 to 1.52 m) wide in diameter and are constructed by individuals. Young animals nest with their mother but do not construct nests until three years of age, initially in close proximity to their mother. [19] Gorilla nests are distributed randomly and the tree species used appears to be opportunistic. [2]

In chimpanzees

Chimpanzee nest Chimp's Nest.jpg
Chimpanzee nest

Nest-building is seen in chimpanzees who construct arboreal night nests by lacing together branches from one or more trees. They can also build nap nests to rest in the afternoon, these are usually more poorly constructed than the night nests and can be built both on the ground and on the trees. At some research sites such as Bili forest, in Congo, chimpanzees can build a significant proportion of their night nests on the ground. Nests consist of a mattress, supported on a strong foundation, and lined above with soft leaves and twigs. Nests are built in trees which have a minimum diameter of 5 centimetres (0.16 ft) and may be located at a height of 1 to 45 metres (3.3 to 147.6 ft). Day and night nests are built. Nests may be located in groups. [20]

In orangutans

Orangutan nest Orangutan Nest.jpg
Orangutan nest

Orangutans build day and night nests. Young orangutans learn by observing their mothers' nest-building behaviour. Nest-building is a leading reason for young orangutans to leave their mother for the first time. Starting at 6 months of age, orangutans practice nest building and gain proficiency by the time they are 3 years old. [1] Initially, a suitable tree is located: orangutans are selective about sites even though many tree species are utilised. The foundation is then built by pulling together branches under them and joining them at a point. After the foundation has been built, they bend smaller, leafy branches onto the foundation; this serves the purpose of and is termed as the "mattress". After this, orangutans braid the tips of branches into the mattress. This increases the stability of the nest and forms the final process of nest building. Orangutans may add additional features such as "pillows", "blankets", "roofs" and "bunk-beds" to their nest. [1] Orangutans make "pillows" by clumping together leafy branches with the leaves in the center and the twig shoots pointed outward. They bite the twigs to blunt sharp ends. Pillows are added to night nests but are usually absent from day nests. A "blanket" consists of large leafy branches with which orangutans cover themselves after lying down. Orangutans may create a waterproof overhead shelter for the nest by braiding together a loose selection of branches. They may also make a "bunk-nest" or "bunk-bed", a few metres above the main nest. [1]

In humans

Humans build structures that can serve the same function as non-human primate nests. Modern constructions can be built with a variety of materials, the most common ones being clay, concrete, stone and wood. Early hominins did not construct structures but rather chose caves and other shelters in which to live. The emergence of built structures occurred gradually over time with the earliest structures functioning as wind breaks rather than covered huts. [21] According to a non-verified hypothesis, archaic humans may have lived in tree houses until about 40,000 years ago. [22]

Evolution

A study on the phylogeny of primate behaviour has revealed that the use of tree holes or nests are important in the life-history strategies of many strepsirrhine species and some New World monkey species. [23]

Alternative strategies of infant care which involve carrying the infants rather than leaving them have evolved several times but have reproductive costs and generally slower rates of population increase than species which build nests. [24]

Use of nests for leaving young is thought to have evolved from nocturnal primates with solitary habits which possibly led to the evolution of nesting and parking behaviour in strepsirrhines such as galagoes. Galagoes give birth to a single young which is left in a nest as an infant and carried to a parking place in the vegetation orally by the mothers. In addition, the use of nests or tree holes as shelters for young infants differs functionally from the use of resting places by adult animals (which may be accompanied by infants). [23] [ clarification needed ]

See also

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Chimpanzee</span> Species of great apes

The chimpanzee, also simply known as the chimp, is a species of great ape native to the forests and savannahs of tropical Africa. It has four confirmed subspecies and a fifth proposed one. When its close relative the bonobo was more commonly known as the pygmy chimpanzee, this species was often called the common chimpanzee or the robust chimpanzee. The chimpanzee and the bonobo are the only species in the genus Pan. Evidence from fossils and DNA sequencing shows that Pan is a sister taxon to the human lineage and is thus humans' closest living relative. The chimpanzee is covered in coarse black hair, but has a bare face, fingers, toes, palms of the hands, and soles of the feet. It is larger and more robust than the bonobo, weighing 40–70 kg (88–154 lb) for males and 27–50 kg (60–110 lb) for females and standing 150 cm.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Lorisidae</span> Family of primates

Lorisidae is a family of strepsirrhine primates. The lorisids are all slim arboreal animals and comprise the lorises, pottos and angwantibos. Lorisids live in tropical, central Africa as well as in south and southeast Asia.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Orangutan</span> Genus of Asian apes

Orangutans are great apes native to the rainforests of Indonesia and Malaysia. They are now found only in parts of Borneo and Sumatra, but during the Pleistocene they ranged throughout Southeast Asia and South China. Classified in the genus Pongo, orangutans were originally considered to be one species. From 1996, they were divided into two species: the Bornean orangutan and the Sumatran orangutan. A third species, the Tapanuli orangutan, was identified definitively in 2017. The orangutans are the only surviving species of the subfamily Ponginae, which diverged genetically from the other hominids between 19.3 and 15.7 million years ago.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Primate</span> Order of mammals

Primates is an order of mammals, which is further divided into the strepsirrhines, which include lemurs, galagos, and lorisids; and the haplorhines, which include tarsiers; and the simians, which include monkeys and apes. Primates arose 85–55 million years ago first from small terrestrial mammals, which adapted for life in tropical forests: many primate characteristics represent adaptations to the challenging environment among tree tops, including large brain sizes, binocular vision, color vision, vocalizations, shoulder girdles allowing a large degree of movement in the upper limbs, and opposable thumbs that enable better grasping and dexterity. Primates range in size from Madame Berthe's mouse lemur, which weighs 30 g (1 oz), to the eastern gorilla, weighing over 200 kg (440 lb). There are 376–524 species of living primates, depending on which classification is used. New primate species continue to be discovered: over 25 species were described in the 2000s, 36 in the 2010s, and six in the 2020s.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Loris</span> Subfamily of primates

Loris is the common name for the strepsirrhine mammals of the subfamily Lorinae in the family Lorisidae. Loris is one genus in this subfamily and includes the slender lorises, Nycticebus is the genus containing the slow lorises, and Xanthonycticebus is the genus name of the pygmy slow loris.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Aye-aye</span> Species of primate

The aye-aye is a long-fingered lemur, a strepsirrhine primate native to Madagascar with rodent-like teeth that perpetually grow and a special thin middle finger that they can use to catch grubs and larvae out of tree trunks.

<i>Pan</i> (genus) Genus of African great apes

The genus Pan consists of two extant species: the chimpanzee and the bonobo. Taxonomically, these two ape species are collectively termed panins. The two species were formerly collectively called "chimpanzees" or "chimps"; if bonobos were recognized as a separate group at all, they were referred to as "pygmy" or "gracile chimpanzees". Together with humans, gorillas, and orangutans they are part of the family Hominidae. Native to sub-Saharan Africa, chimpanzees and bonobos are currently both found in the Congo jungle, while only the chimpanzee is also found further north in West Africa. Both species are listed as endangered on the IUCN Red List of Threatened Species, and in 2017 the Convention on Migratory Species selected the chimpanzee for special protection.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Ape</span> Branch of primates

Apes are a clade of Old World simians native to sub-Saharan Africa and Southeast Asia, which together with its sister group Cercopithecidae form the catarrhine clade, cladistically making them monkeys. Apes do not have tails due to a mutation of the TBXT gene. In traditional and non-scientific use, the term ape can include tailless primates taxonomically considered Cercopithecidae, and is thus not equivalent to the scientific taxon Hominoidea. There are two extant branches of the superfamily Hominoidea: the gibbons, or lesser apes; and the hominids, or great apes.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Lesser bushbaby</span> Genus of primates

Lesser bushbabies, or lesser galagos, are strepsirrhine primates of the genus Galago. They are classified, along with the other bushbaby and galago genera in the family Galagidae. They are probably the most numerous primate in Africa, and can be found in every large forest on the continent, inhabiting forested areas, savannas, riverine bush and open woodlands.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Strepsirrhini</span> Suborder of primates

Strepsirrhini or Strepsirhini is a suborder of primates that includes the lemuriform primates, which consist of the lemurs of Madagascar, galagos ("bushbabies") and pottos from Africa, and the lorises from India and southeast Asia. Collectively they are referred to as strepsirrhines. Also belonging to the suborder are the extinct adapiform primates which thrived during the Eocene in Europe, North America, and Asia, but disappeared from most of the Northern Hemisphere as the climate cooled. Adapiforms are sometimes referred to as being "lemur-like", although the diversity of both lemurs and adapiforms does not support this comparison.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Prosimian</span> Obsolete primate taxon

Prosimians are a group of primates that includes all living and extinct strepsirrhines, as well as the haplorhine tarsiers and their extinct relatives, the omomyiforms, i.e. all primates excluding the simians. They are considered to have characteristics that are more "primitive" than those of simians.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Lemur</span> Clade of primates endemic to the island of Madagascar

Lemurs are wet-nosed primates of the superfamily Lemuroidea, divided into 8 families and consisting of 15 genera and around 100 existing species. They are endemic to the island of Madagascar. Most existing lemurs are small, have a pointed snout, large eyes, and a long tail. They chiefly live in trees and are active at night.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Gray mouse lemur</span> Small primate from Madagascar

The gray mouse lemur, grey mouse lemur or lesser mouse lemur is a small lemur, a type of strepsirrhine primate, found only on the island of Madagascar. Weighing 58 to 67 grams, it is the largest of the mouse lemurs, a group that includes the smallest primates in the world. The species is named for its mouse-like size and coloration and is known locally as tsidy, koitsiky, titilivaha, pondiky, and vakiandry. The gray mouse lemur and all other mouse lemurs are considered cryptic species, as they are nearly indistinguishable from each other by appearance. For this reason, the gray mouse lemur was considered the only mouse lemur species for decades until more recent studies began to distinguish between the species.

A facultative biped is an animal that is capable of walking or running on two legs (bipedal), as a response to exceptional circumstances (facultative), while normally walking or running on four limbs or more. In contrast, obligate bipedalism is where walking or running on two legs is the primary method of locomotion. Facultative bipedalism has been observed in several families of lizards and multiple species of primates, including sifakas, capuchin monkeys, baboons, gibbons, gorillas, bonobos and chimpanzees. Several dinosaur and other prehistoric archosaur species are facultative bipeds, most notably ornithopods and marginocephalians, with some recorded examples within sauropodomorpha. Different facultatively bipedal species employ different types of bipedalism corresponding to the varying reasons they have for engaging in facultative bipedalism. In primates, bipedalism is often associated with food gathering and transport. In lizards, it has been debated whether bipedal locomotion is an advantage for speed and energy conservation or whether it is governed solely by the mechanics of the acceleration and lizard's center of mass. Facultative bipedalism is often divided into high-speed (lizards) and low-speed (gibbons), but some species cannot be easily categorized into one of these two. Facultative bipedalism has also been observed in cockroaches and some desert rodents.

<i>Cousins</i> (TV series) British nature documentary TV series

Cousins is a nature documentary TV series produced by the BBC Natural History Unit in Bristol, England, first transmitted in the UK on BBC One in August 2000. The series looks at the primates, the closest living relatives to human beings.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Tool use by non-humans</span>

Tool use by non-humans is a phenomenon in which a non-human animal uses any kind of tool in order to achieve a goal such as acquiring food and water, grooming, combat, defence, communication, recreation or construction. Originally thought to be a skill possessed only by humans, some tool use requires a sophisticated level of cognition. There is considerable discussion about the definition of what constitutes a tool and therefore which behaviours can be considered true examples of tool use. A wide range of animals, including mammals, birds, fish, cephalopods, and insects, are considered to use tools.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Hominidae</span> Family of primates

The Hominidae, whose members are known as the great apes or hominids, are a taxonomic family of primates that includes eight extant species in four genera: Pongo ; Gorilla ; Pan ; and Homo, of which only modern humans remain.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Primate cognition</span> Study of non-human primate intellect

Primate cognition is the study of the intellectual and behavioral skills of non-human primates, particularly in the fields of psychology, behavioral biology, primatology, and anthropology.

Plesiopithecus is an extinct genus of early strepsirrhine primate from the late Eocene.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Evolution of primates</span> Origin and diversification of primates through geologic time

The evolutionary history of the primates can be traced back 57-90 million years. One of the oldest known primate-like mammal species, Plesiadapis, came from North America; another, Archicebus, came from China. Other similar basal primates were widespread in Eurasia and Africa during the tropical conditions of the Paleocene and Eocene. Purgatorius is the genus of the four extinct species believed to be the earliest example of a primate or a proto-primate, a primatomorph precursor to the Plesiadapiformes, dating to as old as 66 million years ago.

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