North American Model of Wildlife Conservation

Last updated

The North American Model of Wildlife Conservation is a set of principles that has guided wildlife management and conservation decisions in the United States and Canada. [1] Although not formally articulated until 2001, [2] the model has its origins in 19th century conservation movements, the near extinction of several species of wildlife (including the American Bison) and the rise of sportsmen with the middle class. [3] [4] Beginning in the 1860s sportsmen began to organize and advocate for the preservation of wilderness areas and wildlife. The North American Model of Wildlife Conservation rests on two basic principles – fish and wildlife are for the non-commercial use of citizens, and should be managed such that they are available at optimum population levels forever.

Contents

History

Since early colonial years, there were few laws protecting fish and wildlife on North American continent, and its wildlife resources took a heavy toll. Market hunters took fish and wildlife at will while habitat disappeared under plow and roads, resulting in devastating reductions in wildlife populations. Some species, like the passenger pigeon, were exploited to the point of no return; others such as American bison, white-tailed deer and wild turkeys, were pushed to the edge of extinction. Led by conservation leaders like Aldo Leopold, Teddy Roosevelt and John Muir, hunting and fishing community came together, and used politics and power to make great strides for conserving North America’s vast wildlife resources.

As the tides turned for conservation, important laws were passed, including the Migratory Bird Treaty Act of 1918, the Migratory Bird Hunting and Conservation Stamp Act of 1934, the Wildlife Restoration Act of 1937, and the Sport Fish Restoration Act of 1950 (currently known as the Pittman-Robertson Act and Dingell-Johnson Act). Collectively, these acts laid the foundation for a funding mechanism to state wildlife management agencies and are a large part of the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service’s history.

The acts formed a partnership between states, industry, and the federal government. They comprise, on average, more than 75% of a state fish and wildlife agency’s annual budget, according to the Association of Fish and Wildlife Agencies. The Service works closely with industry and states to ensure the funds are spent on conservation programs that meet the purposes of the acts. [5]

Through self-imposed excise taxes on hunting, shooting, archery and angling equipment, and a tax on boating fuels, hunters, recreational shooters and anglers have generated approximately $25.5 billion for wildlife and habitat conservation since 1937. These Wildlife Restoration and Sport Fish Restoration revenues, raised through the Pittman-Robertson Act and Dingell-Johnson Act, are managed by the U.S. Fish and Wildlife’s Wildlife and Sport Fish Restoration Program. In 2022, a record $1.5 billion was distributed to states and territories through the program. [6]

Tenets

The core principles of the Model are elaborated upon in the seven major tenets: [1]

Wildlife as Public Trust Resources

In the North American Model, wildlife is held in the public trust. This means that fish and wildlife are held by the public through state and federal governments. In other words, though an individual may own the land upon which wildlife resides, that individual does not own said wildlife. Instead, the wildlife is owned by all citizens. With origins in Roman times and English Common law, the public trust doctrine has at its heart the 1842 Supreme Court ruling Martin V. Waddell. [7]

Elimination of Markets for Game

Commercial hunting and the sale of wildlife is prohibited to ensure the sustainability of wildlife population. This principle holds that unregulated economic markets for game and non-game wildlife are unacceptable because they privatize a common resource and lead to declines. The Lacey Act of 1900 effectively made market hunting illegal in the United States, and the Migratory Bird Treaty Act of 1918 provided international protections from the market. [1]

Allocation of Wildlife by Law

Wildlife is allocated to the public by law, as opposed to market principles, land ownership, or other status. Democratic processes and public input into law-making help ensure access is equitable. Laws regulating access to wildlife include the 1940 Bald and Golden Eagle Protection Act, Endangered Species Preservation Act and Fur Seal Act of 1966, the Marine Mammal Protection Act of 1972, and the 1973 Endangered Species Act. [1]

Wildlife Should Only be Killed for a Legitimate Purpose

Under the North American Model, the killing of game must be done only for food, fur, self-defense, and the protection of property (including livestock). In other words, it is broadly regarded as unlawful and unethical to kill fish or wildlife (even with a license) without making all reasonable effort to retrieve and make reasonable use of the resource. [8] [9]

Wildlife is Considered an International Resource

As wildlife do not exist only within fixed political boundaries, effective management of these resources must be done internationally, through treaties and the cooperation of management agencies. [8] [9]

Science is the Proper Tool for Discharge of Wildlife Policy

The North American Model recognizes science as a basis for informed management and decision-making processes. This tenet draws from the writings of Aldo Leopold, who in the 1930s called for a wildlife conservation movement facilitated by trained wildlife biologists that made decisions based on facts, professional experience, and commitment to shared underlying principles, rather than strictly interests of hunting, stocking, or culling of predators. Science in wildlife policy includes studies of population dynamics, behavior, habitat, adaptive management, and national surveys of hunting and fishing. [1]

Democracy of Hunting

This tenet is inspired by Theodore Roosevelt's idea that open access to hunting would result in many benefits to society. This tenet supports access to firearms and the hunting industry, of which much funding for conservation is derived. [1] [10]

Criticism

Some authors have questioned whether the North America Model is inclusive of all wildlife conservation interests or exclusively narrow in its application. [11] The North American model has also been criticized as presenting an "inadequate history" and prescribing "inadequate ethics" of conservation, and in giving recreational hunting disproportionate credit for its role in conservation. [12] [13] Critics say some tenets are flawed or misguided, for example that the tenet Elimination of Markets for Game overlooks the conservation success of Europe- where wildlife is privatized and commercialized- and ignores the role of sustainable harvest strategies, or that some hunting activity may be inherently contradictory to the tenet Wildlife Should Only be Killed for a Legitimate Purpose. [12]

Much debate has occurred over the tenet Science is the Proper Tool for Discharge of Wildlife Policy. [14] [15] [16] Some authors suggest that by and large the scientific foundation is missing from the process of managing wildlife. [14] However, their interpretation of "science-based management" has been challenged as being too limiting to encompass the nuances of wildlife management in North America. [16]

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">United States Fish and Wildlife Service</span> United States federal government agency

The United States Fish and Wildlife Service is a U.S. federal government agency within the U.S. Department of the Interior which oversees the management of fish, wildlife, and natural habitats in the United States. The mission of the agency is "working with others to conserve, protect, and enhance fish, wildlife, plants and their habitats for the continuing benefit of the American people."

<span class="mw-page-title-main">National Wildlife Refuge</span> United States protected area designation

National Wildlife RefugeSystem (NWRS) is a system of protected areas of the United States managed by the United States Fish and Wildlife Service (FWS), an agency within the Department of the Interior. The National Wildlife Refuge System is the system of public lands and waters set aside to conserve America's fish, wildlife, and plants. Since President Theodore Roosevelt designated Florida's Pelican Island National Wildlife Refuge as the first wildlife refuge in 1903, the system has grown to over 568 national wildlife refuges and 38 wetland management districts encompassing about 856,000,000 acres (3,464,109 km2).

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Federal Duck Stamp</span>

The Federal Duck Stamp, formally known as the Migratory Bird Hunting and Conservation Stamp, is an adhesive stamp issued by the United States federal government that must be purchased prior to hunting for migratory waterfowl such as ducks and geese. It is also used to gain entrance to National Wildlife Refuges that normally charge for admission. It is widely seen as a collectable and a means to raise funds for wetland conservation, with 98% of the proceeds of each sale going to the Migratory Bird Conservation Fund.

The Migratory Bird Treaty Act of 1918 (MBTA), codified at 16 U.S.C. §§ 703–712, is a United States federal law, first enacted in 1918 to implement the convention for the protection of migratory birds between the United States and Canada. The statute makes it unlawful without a waiver to pursue, hunt, take, capture, kill, or sell nearly 1,100 species of birds listed therein as migratory birds. The statute does not discriminate between live or dead birds and also grants full protection to any bird parts including feathers, eggs, and nests. A March 2020 update of the list increased the number of species to 1,093.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Loxahatchee National Wildlife Refuge</span> United States National Wildlife Refuge in Florida

The Arthur R. Marshall Loxahatchee National Wildlife Refuge is a 145,188-acre (587.55 km2) wildlife sanctuary is located west of Boynton Beach, in Palm Beach County, Florida. It is also known as Water Conservation Area 1 (WCA-1). It includes the most northern remnant of the historic Everglades wetland ecosystem.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Yolo Bypass</span> Flood bypass in the Sacramento Valley

The Yolo Bypass is one of the two flood bypasses in California's Sacramento Valley located in Yolo and Solano Counties. Through a system of weirs, the bypass diverts floodwaters from the Sacramento River away from the state's capital city of Sacramento and other nearby riverside communities.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Canadian Wildlife Service</span> Branch of the Department of Environment and Climate Change Canada

The Canadian Wildlife Service or CWS, is a Branch of the Department of Environment and Climate Change Canada, a department of the Government of Canada. November 1, 2012 marked the 65th anniversary of the founding of Service.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Wildlife management</span> Management and control of wildlife populations

Wildlife management is the management process influencing interactions among and between wildlife, its habitats and people to achieve predefined impacts. It attempts to balance the needs of wildlife with the needs of people using the best available science. Wildlife management can include wildlife conservation, gamekeeping and pest control. Wildlife management draws on disciplines such as mathematics, chemistry, biology, ecology, climatology and geography to gain the best results.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">History of the National Wildlife Refuge System</span>

The National Wildlife Refuge System in the United States has a long and distinguished history.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Michigan Department of Natural Resources</span> Government agency of Michigan

The Michigan Department of Natural Resources (DNR) is the agency of the state of Michigan fo9unded in 1921, charged with maintaining natural resources such as state parks, state forests, and recreation areas. It is governed by a director appointed by the Governor and accepted by the Natural Resources Commission. Since 2023, the Director is Scott Bowen. The DNR has about 1,400 permanent employees, and over 1,600 seasonal employees.

Title 16 of the United States Code outlines the role of conservation in the United States Code.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Rocky Mountain Elk Foundation</span>

The Rocky Mountain Elk Foundation (RMEF) is a conservation and pro-hunting organization, founded in the United States in 1984 by four hunters from Troy, Montana. Its mission is to ensure the future of elk, other wildlife, their habitat and American hunting heritage. In support of this mission the RMEF is committed to:

  1. Conserving, restoring, and enhancing natural habitats;
  2. Promoting the sound management of wild, free-ranging elk, which may be hunted or otherwise enjoyed;
  3. Fostering cooperation among federal, state, tribal, and private organizations and individuals in wildlife management and habitat conservation; and
  4. Educating members and the public about habitat conservation, the value of hunting, hunting ethics, and wildlife management.
<span class="mw-page-title-main">Conservation officer</span> Law enforcement officers responsible for protecting wildlife

A conservation officer is a law enforcement officer who protects wildlife and the environment. A conservation officer may also be referred to as an environmental technician/technologist, game warden, park ranger, forest watcher, forest guard, forester, gamekeeper, investigator, wildernessofficer, wildlifeofficer, or wildlife trooper.

The Alaska Department of Fish and Game (ADF&G) is a department within the government of Alaska. ADF&G's mission is to protect, maintain, and improve the fish, game, and aquatic plant resources of the state, and manage their use and development in the best interest of the economy and the well-being of the people of the state, consistent with the sustained yield principle. ADF&G manages approximately 750 active fisheries, 26 game management units, and 32 special areas. From resource policy to public education, the department considers public involvement essential to its mission and goals. The department is committed to working with tribes in Alaska and with a diverse group of State and Federal agencies. The department works cooperatively with various universities and nongovernmental organizations in formal and informal partnership arrangements, and assists local research or baseline environmental monitoring through citizen science programs.

The Federal Aid in Wildlife Restoration Act of 1937, most often referred to as the Pittman–Robertson Act for its sponsors, Nevada Senator Key Pittman and Virginia Congressman Absalom Willis Robertson, is an act that imposes an 11% tax on firearms, ammunition, and archery equipment and distributes the proceeds to state governments for wildlife projects.

Enric Sala is a former university professor who saw himself writing the obituary of ocean life, and quit academia to become a full-time conservationist as a National Geographic Explorer-in-Residence. Sala’s present goals are to help protect critical marine ecosystems worldwide, and to develop new business models for marine conservation. He also produces documentary films and other media to raise awareness about the importance of a healthy environment, and to inspire country leaders to protect more of the natural world.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Summer Lake Wildlife Area</span> Wildlife refuge in Oregon

The Summer Lake Wildlife Area is a 29.6-square-mile (77 km2) wildlife refuge located on the northwestern edge of the Great Basin drainage in south-central Oregon. It is administered by the Oregon Department of Fish and Wildlife. The refuge is an important stop for waterfowl traveling along the Pacific Flyway during their spring and fall migrations. The Summer Lake Wildlife Area also provides habitat for shorebirds and other bird species as well as wide variety of mammals and several fish species. The Ana River supplies the water for the refuge wetlands.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Professional hunter</span>

A professional hunter is a person who hunts and/or manages game by profession. Some professional hunters work in the private sector or for government agencies and manage species that are considered overabundant, others are self-employed and make a living by selling hides and meat, while still others guide clients on big-game hunts.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">United States Fish and Wildlife Service Office of Law Enforcement</span>

The United States Fish and Wildlife Service Office of Law Enforcement contributes to Service efforts to manage ecosystems, save endangered species, conserve migratory birds, preserve wildlife habitat, restore fisheries, combat invasive species, and promote international wildlife conservation. It is an office of the United States Fish and Wildlife Service (FWS).

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Wetland conservation in the United States</span>

Over the past 200 years, the United States has lost more than 50% of its wetlands. And even with the current focus on wetland conservation, the US is losing about 60,000 acres (240 km2) of wetlands per year. However, from 1998 to 2004 the United States managed a net gain of 191,750 acres (776.0 km2) of wetlands . The past several decades have seen an increasing number of laws and regulations regarding wetlands, their surroundings, and their inhabitants, creating protections through several different outlets. Some of the most important have been and are the Migratory Bird Act, Swampbuster, and the Clean Water Act.

References

  1. 1 2 3 4 5 6 Organ, J.F.; V. Geist; S.P. Mahoney; S. Williams; P.R. Krausman; G.R. Batcheller; T.A. Decker; R. Carmichael; P. Nanjappa; R. Regan; R.A. Medellin; R. Cantu; R.E. McCabe; S. Craven; G.M. Vecellio; D.J. Decker (2012). The North American Model of Wildlife Conservation (PDF). Bethesda, Maryland: The Wildlife Society. ISBN   978-0-9830402-3-1.{{cite book}}: |journal= ignored (help)
  2. ↑ Geist, V.; S.P. Mahoney; J.F. Organ (2001). "Why hunting has defined the North American model of wildlife conservation" (PDF). Transactions of the North American Wildlife and Natural Resources Conference. 66: 175–185.
  3. ↑ Mahoney, Shane (May–June 2004). "The North American Wildlife Conservation Model". Bugle. Rocky Mountain Elk Foundation. 21 (3).
  4. ↑ "TWS Final Position Statement" (PDF). The Wildlife Society. March 2007. Retrieved April 4, 2011.
  5. ↑ "North American Model of Wildlife Conservation: Wildlife for Everyone | U.S. Fish & Wildlife Service". FWS.gov. April 4, 2022. Retrieved October 27, 2022.
  6. ↑ "Interior Department Announces Over $1.5 Billion to Support State Wildlife Conservation and Outdoor Recreation". www.doi.gov. February 11, 2022. Retrieved October 27, 2022.
  7. ↑ Organ, John; Shane Mahoney (Summer 2007). "The Future of Public Trust" (PDF). The Wildlife Professional: 18–22. doi:10.4004/1933-2866(2007)1[18:TFOPT]2.0.CO;2.
  8. 1 2 Mahoney, Shane (September–October 2004). "The Seven Sisters". Bugle. Rocky Mountain Elk Foundation. 21 (5).
  9. 1 2 "North American Wildlife Conservation Model" . Retrieved April 4, 2011.
  10. ↑ U.S. Fish & Wildlife Service (December 12, 2007). "What do hunters do for conservation?". USFWS Hunting. United States Fish and Wildlife Service. Retrieved November 5, 2013.
  11. ↑ Beuchler, M.; G. Servheen (2008). "The North American Model of Wildlife Conservation: affirming the role, strength, and relevance of hunting in the 21st century". Transactions of the North American Wildlife and Natural Resources Conference. 73: 163–179.
  12. 1 2 Nelson, Michael P.; John A. Vucetich; Paul C. Paquet; Joseph K. Bump (Summer 2011). "An Inadequate Construct? North American Model: What's Flawed, What's Missing, What's Needed" (PDF). The Wildlife Professional: 58–60.
  13. ↑ "Scientists Call North American Wildlife Conservation Model Flawed". NewsWise. Newswise, Inc. June 17, 2011. Retrieved November 5, 2013.
  14. 1 2 Artelle, Kyle A.; Reynolds, John D.; Treves, Adrian; Walsh, Jessica C.; Paquet, Paul C.; Darimont, Chris T. (March 7, 2018). "Hallmarks of science missing from North American wildlife management". Science Advances. 4 (3): eaao0167. Bibcode:2018SciA....4..167A. doi:10.1126/sciadv.aao0167. ISSN   2375-2548. PMC   5842039 . PMID   29532032.
  15. ↑ Artelle, Kyle A.; Reynolds, John D.; Treves, Adrian; Walsh, Jessica C.; Paquet, Paul C.; Darimont, Chris T. (October 3, 2018). "Working constructively toward an improved North American approach to wildlife management". Science Advances. 4 (10): eaav2571. Bibcode:2018SciA....4.2571A. doi:10.1126/sciadv.aav2571. ISSN   2375-2548. PMC   6170033 . PMID   30306136.
  16. 1 2 Mawdsley, Jonathan R.; Organ, John F.; Decker, Daniel J.; Forstchen, Ann B.; Regan, Ronald J.; Riley, Shawn J.; Boyce, Mark S.; McDonald, John E.; Dwyer, Chris; Mahoney, Shane P. (October 3, 2018). "Artelle et al . (2018) miss the science underlying North American wildlife management". Science Advances. 4 (10): eaat8281. Bibcode:2018SciA....4.8281M. doi:10.1126/sciadv.aat8281. ISSN   2375-2548. PMC   6170037 . PMID   30306133.
This page is based on this Wikipedia article
Text is available under the CC BY-SA 4.0 license; additional terms may apply.
Images, videos and audio are available under their respective licenses.