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Sino-Tibetan, also cited as Trans-Himalayan in a few sources, is a family of more than 400 languages, second only to Indo-European in number of native speakers. Around 1.4 billion people speak a Sino-Tibetan language. The vast majority of these are the 1.3 billion native speakers of Sinitic languages. Other Sino-Tibetan languages with large numbers of speakers include Burmese and the Tibetic languages. Other languages of the family are spoken in the Himalayas, the Southeast Asian Massif, and the eastern edge of the Tibetan Plateau. Most of these have small speech communities in remote mountain areas, and as such are poorly documented.
The Karen or Karenic languages are tonal languages spoken by some 4.5 million Karen people. They are of unclear affiliation within the Sino-Tibetan languages. The Karen languages are written using the Karen script. The three main branches are Sgaw, Pwo and Pa'O. Karenni and Kayan are a branch of Karen languages. They are unusual among the Sino-Tibetan languages in having a subject–verb–object word order; other than Karen, Bai and the Chinese languages, Sino-Tibetan languages have a subject–object–verb order. This is likely due to influence from neighboring Mon and Tai languages.
The Kuki-Chin–Naga languages are a geographic clustering of languages of the Sino-Tibetan family in James Matisoff's classification used by Ethnologue, which groups it under the non-monophyletic "Tibeto-Burman". Their genealogical relationship both to each other and to the rest of Sino-Tibetan is unresolved, but Matisoff lumps them together as a convenience pending further research.
The Naga languages are a geographic and ethnic grouping of. Kuki-Chin-Naga languages, spoken mostly by Naga peoples.
The Sal languages, also known as the Brahmaputran languages, are a branch of Tibeto-Burman languages spoken in northeast India, as well as parts of Bangladesh, Myanmar (Burma), and China.
The Boro–Garo languages are a branch of Sino-Tibetan languages, spoken primarily in Northeast India and parts of Bangladesh.
The Ao or Central Naga languages are a small family of Sino-Tibetan languages spoken by various Naga peoples of Nagaland in northeast India. Conventionally classified as "Naga", they are not clearly related to other Naga languages, and are conservatively classified as an independent branch of Sino-Tibetan, pending further research. There are around 607,000 speakers of the languages in total.
The Kuki-Chin languages are a branch of the Sino-Tibetan language family spoken in northeastern India, western Myanmar and southeastern Bangladesh. Most notable Kuki-Chin-speaking ethnic groups are referred to collectively as the Zo people which includes: the Mizo of Mizoram, the Kuki of Manipur, and the Chin of Chin State, Myanmar.
The Tibeto-Kanauri languages, also called Bodic, Bodish–Himalayish, and Western Tibeto-Burman, are a proposed intermediate level of classification of the Sino-Tibetan languages, centered on the Tibetic languages and the Kinnauri dialect cluster. The conception of the relationship, or if it is even a valid group, varies between researchers.
The Nung or Nungish languages are a poorly described family of uncertain affiliation within the Sino-Tibetan languages spoken in Yunnan, China and Burma. They include:
The Loloish languages, also known as Yi and occasionally Ngwi or Nisoic, are a family of fifty to a hundred Sino-Tibetan languages spoken primarily in Yunnan province of China. They are most closely related to Burmese and its relatives. Both the Loloish and Burmish branches are well defined, as is their superior node, Lolo-Burmese. However, subclassification is more contentious.
The Tibeto-Burman languages are the non-Sinitic members of the Sino-Tibetan language family, over 400 of which are spoken throughout the Southeast Asian Massif ("Zomia") as well as parts of East Asia and South Asia. Around 60 million people speak Tibeto-Burman languages. The name derives from the most widely spoken of these languages, Burmese and the Tibetic languages, which also have extensive literary traditions, dating from the 12th and 7th centuries respectively. Most of the other languages are spoken by much smaller communities, and many of them have not been described in detail.
Proto-Tibeto-Burman is the reconstructed ancestor of the Tibeto-Burman languages, that is, the Sino-Tibetan languages, except for Chinese. An initial reconstruction was produced by Paul K. Benedict and since refined by James Matisoff. Several other researchers argue that the Tibeto-Burman languages sans Chinese do not constitute a monophyletic group within Sino-Tibetan, and therefore that Proto-Tibeto-Burman was the same language as Proto-Sino-Tibetan.
Maring Naga, are a Tibeto-Burman ethnic group of Northeast Indian state of Manipur. They live in the Chandel district along the north border and in the Tengnoupal district. They speak the Maring language belonging to the Southern Naga. However, the Marings identify with the Naga people. The Marings have a system of hereditary chiefs.
Lamkang is the Kuki-Chin of the Lamkang Naga people of Manipur, India, with one village in Burma. It is very similar to Anal Naga, and has been influenced by Manipuri as the people have been acculturated.
Chothe is a Sino-Tibetan language of Kuki-Chin subgroup of northeastern India. It may be intelligible with Aimol. The speakers of this language use Meitei language as their second language (L2) according to the Ethnologue.
Monsang is an unclassified Sino-Tibetan language spoken in the Northeast of India. Scott DeLancey, et al. (2015) classifies Monsang as a "Northwest Naga" language. The speakers of this language use Meitei language as their second language (L2) according to the Ethnologue.
Moyon is a Sino-Tibetan language of Southern Naga linguistic sub branch. It is spoken by the Moyon peoples in Manipur, India and in Burma. The speakers of this language use Meitei language as their second language (L2) according to the Ethnologue.
Mruic or Mru–Hkongso is a small group of Sino-Tibetan languages consisting of two languages, Mru and Anu-Hkongso. Their relationship within Sino-Tibetan is unclear.
Central Tibeto-Burman or Central Trans-Himalayan is a proposed branch of the Sino-Tibetan language family proposed by Scott DeLancey (2015) on the basis of shared morphological evidence.
References
- ↑ DeLancey, Scott; Krishna Boro; Linda Konnerth; Amos Teo, Tibeto-Burman Languages of the Indo-Myanmar borderland. 31st South Asian Languages Analysis Roundtable, 14 May 2015.
- ↑ Thurgood, Graham (2016), "Sino-Tibetan: Genetic and Areal Subgroups", in Graham Thurgood; Randy J. LaPolla (eds.), The Sino-Tibetan Languages (2 ed.), Taylor & Francis, p. 22, ISBN 9781315399492
- ↑ Doke, C. M. (2017-09-20), "The Morphology of the Southern Bantu Languages", The Southern Bantu Languages, Routledge, pp. 47–90, ISBN 978-1-315-10454-6 , retrieved 2023-09-28
- ↑ Andrew Hsiu. "Kuki-Chin-Naga languages". Sino-Tibetan Branches Project. Archived from the original on 20 April 2019.
