Tansy

Last updated

Tansy
Tanacetum vulgare - harilik soolikarohi Keilas2.jpg
Scientific classification OOjs UI icon edit-ltr.svg
Kingdom: Plantae
Clade: Tracheophytes
Clade: Angiosperms
Clade: Eudicots
Clade: Asterids
Order: Asterales
Family: Asteraceae
Genus: Tanacetum
Species:
T. vulgare
Binomial name
Tanacetum vulgare
Synonyms [1]
  • Chamaemelum tanacetum(Vis.) E.H.L.Krause
  • Chrysanthemum asiaticumVorosch.
  • Pyrethrum vulgare(L.) Boiss.
  • Tanacetum borealeFisch. ex DC.
  • Tanacetum crispumSteud.
Illustration of a tansy Illustration Tanacetum vulgare0.jpg
Illustration of a tansy

Tansy (Tanacetum vulgare) is a perennial, herbaceous flowering plant in the genus Tanacetum in the aster family, native to temperate Europe and Asia. It has been introduced to other parts of the world, including North America, and in some areas has become invasive. It is also known as common tansy, [2] bitter buttons, cow bitter, or golden buttons. The Latin word vulgare means "common". [3]

Contents

Description

Blue tansy (Tanacetum annuum) essential oil in a clear glass vial, not to be confused with the oil from common tansy (Tanacetum vulgare) which is not blue. BlueTansyEssentialOil.png
Blue tansy (Tanacetum annuum) essential oil in a clear glass vial, not to be confused with the oil from common tansy (Tanacetum vulgare) which is not blue.
Tansy: corymb of flower heads with recognisable Fibonacci spirals entered by ants Rainfarn mit Ameisen.jpeg
Tansy: corymb of flower heads with recognisable Fibonacci spirals entered by ants

Tansy is a flowering herbaceous plant with finely divided compound leaves and yellow, button-like flowers. It has a stout, somewhat reddish, erect stem, usually smooth, 50–150 cm (20–59 in) tall, and branching near the top. The leaves are alternate, 10–15 cm (3.9–5.9 in) long and are pinnately lobed, divided almost to the center into about seven pairs of segments, or lobes, which are again divided into smaller lobes having saw-toothed edges, giving the leaf a somewhat fern-like appearance. The roundish, flat-topped, button-like, yellow flower heads are produced in terminal clusters from mid-to-late summer. The scent is similar to that of camphor with hints of rosemary. The leaves and flowers are toxic if consumed in large quantities; the volatile oil contains toxic compounds including thujone, which can cause convulsions and liver and brain damage. Some insects, notably the tansy beetle Chrysolina graminis, have resistance to the toxins and subsist almost exclusively on the plant.

History and distribution

Tansy is native to Eurasia; it is found in almost all parts of mainland Europe, as well as Britain and Ireland. It is absent from Siberia and from some of the Mediterranean islands. [4] The ancient Greeks may have been the first to cultivate it as a medicinal herb. [5] In the sixteenth century it was considered to be "necessary for a garden" in England. [6]

History of uses

Tansy has a long history of use. The first historical records of its cultivation for medicinal purposes involved the ancient Greeks. [5] In the 8th century AD it was grown in the herb gardens of Charlemagne and by Benedictine monks of the Swiss monastery of Saint Gall. [7] Tansy was used to treat intestinal worms, rheumatism, digestive problems, fevers, sores, and to bring out measles. [7] [8] [9] [10] [11]

During the Middle Ages and later, high doses were used to induce abortions. [9] [12] [13] On the other hand, tansy was also used to help women conceive and to prevent miscarriages. [8] [9] [14] In the 15th century, Christians began serving tansy with Lenten meals to commemorate the Passover bitter herbs eaten by the Israelites. [11] [14] Tansy was thought to have the added Lenten benefits of controlling flatulence brought on by days of eating fish and pulses [8] [9] and of preventing the intestinal worms believed to be caused by eating fish during Lent. [15]

Tansy was used as a face wash and was reported to lighten and purify the skin. [8] [9] In the 19th century, Irish folklore suggested that bathing in a solution of tansy and salts would cure joint pain. [16]

Insect repellent

Tansy has also been used as insect repellent [7] and in embalming. [9] [10] It was packed into coffins, wrapped in funeral winding sheets, and tansy wreaths were sometimes placed on the dead. [7] [9] [10] [14] Henry Dunster, the first president of Harvard University, was buried wearing a tansy wreath in a coffin packed with tansy; when the cemetery was moved in 1846 the tansy had maintained its shape and fragrance, helping to identify the president's remains. [7] [9] [14] By the 19th century, tansy was used so much at New England funerals that people began to disdain it for its morbid association with death. [9] [11]

During the American colonial period, meat was frequently rubbed with or packed in tansy leaves to repel insects and delay spoilage. [7] [9] [14] Tansy was frequently worn at that time in shoes to prevent malaria and other fevers; [9] [14] it has been shown, however, that some mosquito species, including Culex pipiens , take nectar from tansy flowers. [17]

Tansy can be used as in companion planting and for biological pest control. It is planted alongside potatoes to repel the Colorado potato beetle, with one study finding tansy reduced the beetle population by 60 to 100 percent. [9] [18] [7]

In England tansy is placed on window sills to repel flies; sprigs are placed in bed linen to drive away pests, and it has been used as an ant repellent. [19]

In the 1940s, distilled tansy oil mixed with fleabane, pennyroyal and diluted alcohol was a well-known mosquito repellent; collectors were paid five cents a pound for tansy in full bloom. [9] [20] Research has found that tansy extracts do indeed repel mosquitoes, but not as effectively as products containing DEET. [9] [21] In 2008, researchers in Sweden investigated the use of tansy to repel ticks, showing a 64–72 percent repellency for each oil constituent. [22]

Toxicity

Detail of Tansy inflorescences Close up of Tanacetum vulgare flower head.JPG
Detail of Tansy inflorescences

Many tansy species contain a volatile oil which can cause contact dermatitis in sensitive individuals. If taken internally, toxic metabolites are produced as the oil is broken down in the liver and digestive tract. It is highly toxic to internal parasites, and for centuries tansy tea has been prescribed by herbalists to expel worms. Tansy is an effective insecticide and is highly toxic to arthropods. [23] Because it contains thujone, the U.S. FDA limits the use of tansy to alcoholic beverages, and the final product must be thujone-free. [24] Tanacetum annuum is often confused with common tansy (Tanacetum vulgare) but the former produces an essential oil that is completely different chemically as it contains no thujone and high amounts of chamazulene making the oil dark blue in color, giving rise to its common name of Blue Tansy Oil. [25] [26] Despite claims by some unethical resellers of essential oils who adulterate the very expensive Blue Tansy (Tanacetum annuum) oil with the much cheaper oil from Tanacetum vulgare, the oil from Tanacetum vulgare is never blue in color as it contains no chamazulene. [27] [28] For this reason a high thujone oil from Tanacetum vulgare should never be referred to as "Blue Tansy" oil and any such blue oil containing significant thujone is an adulterated product.

The active components of the volatile oil include 1,8-cineole, trans-thujone, camphor and myrtenol, with the quantities and proportions of each varying seasonally and from plant to plant. [9] [21] [29] [30] [31]

1,8-Cineole is a toxin believed to defend the plant leaves against attacks by herbivores. [29] [30]

Culinary uses

Tansy foil Tanacetum vulgare blatt.jpeg
Tansy foil

Tansy was formerly used as a flavouring for puddings and omelettes, but is now almost unknown, except in Cork, where it is used in a sauce to accompany drisheens. The herbalist John Gerard (c. 1545–1612) noted that tansy was well known as “pleasant in taste”, and he recommends tansy sweetmeats as “an especial thing against the gout, if every day for a certain space a reasonable quantitie thereof be eaten fasting.” In Yorkshire, tansy and caraway seeds were traditionally used in biscuits served at funerals. [15]

During the Restoration, a "tansy" was a sweet omelette flavoured with tansy juice. In the BBC documentary "The Supersizers go ... Restoration", Allegra McEvedy described the flavour as "fruity, sharpness to it and then there's a sort of explosion of cool heat a bit like peppermint." [32] However, the programme's presenter Sue Perkins experienced tansy toxicity.

According to liquor historian A. J. Baime, in the 19th century Tennessee whiskey magnate Jack Daniel enjoyed drinking his own whiskey with sugar and crushed tansy leaf.

In the Belgian coastal province of West-Flanders small quantities of crushed dried tansy leaf were traditionally used as culinary herb to spice up pancakes and omelettes. There tansy is colloquially known as "pancake herb".

It can also be used as a substitute for sage. [33]

Ethnomedical use

For many years, tansy has been used as a medicinal herb despite its toxicity. 19th-century Irish folklore suggests bathing in a solution of tansy and salt as a cure for joint pain. [16] A bitter tea made with tansy flowers has been used for centuries as an anthelmintic to treat parasitic worm infestations, and tansy cakes were traditionally eaten during Lent because it was believed that eating fish during Lent caused intestinal worms. [15] Various Tanacetum species are used ethnomedically to treat migraine, neuralgia and rheumatism and as anthelmintics. Traditionally, tansy was often used for its emmenagogue effects to bring on menstruation or end an unwanted pregnancy, and pregnant women are advised to not use this herb. [34] Research published in 2011 identified 3,5-dicaffeoylquinic acid (3,5-DCQA) and axillarin in tansy as antiviral compounds that are active against herpes simplex virus. [35] [ medical citation needed ]

Among Native Americans

The Cherokee use an infusion of the plant for backache, use the plant as a tonic, and wear it around the waist and in shoes to prevent miscarriages. [36] The Cheyenne use an infusion of the pulverized leaves and blossoms for dizziness and weakness. [37]

Other uses

Tansy (Tanacetum vulgare) Tanacetum vulgare 20041012 2570.jpg
Tansy (Tanacetum vulgare)

Some traditional dyers use tansy to produce a golden-yellow color. [38] The yellow flowers are dried for use in floral arrangements.

Tansy is also used as a companion plant, especially with cucurbits like cucumbers and squash, or with roses or various berries. It is thought to repel ants, cucumber beetles, Japanese beetles, squash bugs, and some kinds of flying insects, among others.

Dried tansy is used by some beekeepers as fuel in a bee smoker.

See also

Notes

  1. 1 2 "Tanacetum vulgare". The Plant List. Retrieved 2017-06-07.
  2. ↑ USDA, NRCS (n.d.). "Tanacetum vulgare". The PLANTS Database (plants.usda.gov). Greensboro, North Carolina: National Plant Data Team. Retrieved 8 December 2015.
  3. ↑ Walker, Marilyn (2008). Wild plants of Eastern Canada: identifying, harvesting and using; includes recipes & medicinal uses. Halifax, N.S.: Nimbus Pub. ISBN   9781551096155. OCLC   190965401.
  4. ↑ Zohary, D.; Heywood, V.H. (1997). "A Catalogue of the Wild Relatives of Cultivated Plants Native to Europe". Bocconea.
  5. 1 2 LeCain, Ron; Sheley, Roger; Mangold, Jane (2019). "Common tansy (Tanacetum vulgare)" (PDF). p. 2. Retrieved 2022-06-23. The first historical records of common tansy cultivation are from the ancient Greeks who used it for a variety of ailments.
  6. ↑ Harvey, John H. (1989). Garden plants of around 1525: the Fromond list (reprint ed.). pp. 122–134.
  7. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 LeCain 2019, p. 2.
  8. 1 2 3 4 LeStrange, Richard (1977). A History of Herbal Plants. London: Angus & Robertson. ISBN   978-0-207-95645-4.
  9. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 Mitich, Larry W. (March 1992). "Tansy". Weed Technology. 6: 242–244. doi:10.1017/S0890037X00034643. S2CID   251577774.
  10. 1 2 3 Zimdahl, Richard (1989). Weeds and Words. Ames: Iowa State University Press. ISBN   978-0-8138-0128-5.
  11. 1 2 3 Durant, Mary (1976). Who Named the Daisy? Who Named the Rose?. New York: Dodd, Mead and Company.
  12. ↑ Kingsbury, John Merriam (1964). Poisonous Plants of the United States and Canada. Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey: Prentice-Hall. ISBN   978-0-13-685016-8.
  13. ↑ "Illinois Wildflowers" . Retrieved 2008-12-16.
  14. 1 2 3 4 5 6 Haughton, Claire Shaver (1980). Green Immigrants. New York: Harcourt Brace. ISBN   978-0-15-636492-8.
  15. 1 2 3 Sumner, Judith (2004). American Household Botany: A History of Useful Plants, 1620–1900. Portland, Or: Timber Press. ISBN   978-0-88192-652-1.
  16. 1 2 Egan, F.A. (1887). "Irish Folk-Lore. Medical Plants". The Folk-Lore Journal. 5 (1): 11–13. doi:10.1080/17442524.1887.10602835.
  17. ↑ Andersson, I.H.; Jaeson, T.G.T. (1987). "Nectar feeding by mosquitoes in Sweden, with special reference to Culex pipiens and Cx. torrentium". Medical and Veterinary Entomology. 1 (1): 59–64. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2915.1987.tb00323.x. PMID   2979521. S2CID   30469080.
  18. ↑ Schearer, W.R. (1984). "Components of oil of tansy (Tanacetum vulgare) that repel Colorado potato beetle (Leptinotarsa decemlineata)". Journal of Natural Products. 47 (6): 964–9. doi:10.1021/np50036a009.
  19. ↑ Drury, S. (1992). "Plants and Pest Control in England circa 1400–1700: A Preliminary Study". Folklore. 103: 103–6. doi:10.1080/0015587x.1992.9715833.
  20. ↑ Georgia, A.E. (1942). A Manual of Weeds. New York: MacMillan.
  21. 1 2 DePooter, H.L.; Vermeesch, J.; Schamp, N.M. (1989). "unk". Journal of Essential Oil Research. 1 (1): 9–13.
  22. ↑ Pålsson K, Jaenson TG, Baeckström P, Borg-Karlson AK (January 2008). "Tick repellent substances in the essential oil of Tanacetum vulgare". Journal of Medical Entomology. 45 (1): 88–93. doi:10.1603/0022-2585(2008)45[88:TRSITE]2.0.CO;2. PMID   18283947. S2CID   24970966.
  23. ↑ Edible and Medicinal Plants of the West, Gregory L. Tilford, ISBN   0-87842-359-1
  24. ↑ Food Additives Permitted for Direct Addition to Food for Human Consumption. Food and Drug Administration (2007). Retrieved Mar 30, 2008.
  25. ↑ J. Essent. Oil Res., Vol. 11, 343-348 (1999)
  26. ↑ J. Essent. Oil Res., Vol. 12, 122-124 (Jan/Feb 2000)
  27. ↑ J. Agric. Food Chem., 2004, 52 (6), pp 1742–1748
  28. ↑ J. Nat. Prod., 1984, 47 (6), pp 964–969.
  29. 1 2 Jacobs, J. (February 2008). "Ecological Management of Common Tansy (Tanacetum vulgare L.)" (PDF). Invasive Species Technical Note # MT-18. United States Department of Agriculture, Natural Resources Conservation Service. Archived from the original (PDF) on July 18, 2011.
  30. 1 2 Judzentiene, A.; Mockute, D. (2005). "The inflorescence and leaf essential oils of Tanacetum vulgare L. var. vulgare growing wild in Lithuania". Biochemical Systematics and Ecology. 33 (5): 487–498. Bibcode:2005BioSE..33..487J. doi:10.1016/j.bse.2004.11.003.
  31. ↑ Keskitalo, M.; Pehu E.; Simon, J.E. (2001). "Variation in volatile compounds from tansy (Tanacetum vulgare L.) related to genetic and morphological differenced of genotypes". Biochemical Systematics and Ecology. 29 (3): 267–285. Bibcode:2001BioSE..29..267K. doi:10.1016/S0305-1978(00)00056-9. PMID   11152946.
  32. ↑ //www.youtube.com/watch?v=TCfx98Ei5lM and //www.youtube.com/watch?v=fCiBMDhs5p0
  33. ↑ Niering, William A.; Olmstead, Nancy C. (1985) [1979]. The Audubon Society Field Guide to North American Wildflowers, Eastern Region. Knopf. p. 407. ISBN   0-394-50432-1.
  34. ↑ Martin, Corinne (2000). Herbal Remedies from the Wild. Woodstock, Vermont: The Countryman Press. pp. 133–135. ISBN   978-0-88150-485-9.
  35. ↑ Ángel, L. Álvarez; Solomon Habtemariam; Juan-Badaturuge Malindra; Caroline Jackson; Francisco Parra (2011). "In vitro anti HSV-1 and HSV-2 activity of Tanacetum vulgare extracts and isolated compounds: An approach to their mechanisms of action". Phytotherapy Research. 25 (2): 296–301. doi:10.1002/ptr.3382. PMID   21171142. S2CID   9011931.
  36. ↑ Hamel, Paul B. and Mary U. Chiltoskey 1975 Cherokee Plants and Their Uses -- A 400 Year History. Sylva, N.C. Herald Publishing Co. (p. 58)
  37. ↑ Grinnell, George Bird 1972 The Cheyenne Indians - Their History and Ways of Life Vol.2. Lincoln. University of Nebraska Press (p. 190).
  38. ↑ Suomi, Paivi (2001). "A Dyer's Walk". Archived from the original on 2007-09-29. Retrieved 2007-05-15.

Related Research Articles

<i>Marrubium vulgare</i> Species of flowering plant

Marrubium vulgare is a flowering plant in the mint family (Lamiaceae), native to Europe, northern Africa, and southwestern and central Asia. It is also widely naturalized in many places, including most of North and South America.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Oregano</span> Species of flowering plant

Oregano is a species of flowering plant in the mint family Lamiaceae. It was native to the Mediterranean region, but widely naturalised elsewhere in the temperate Northern Hemisphere.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Thujone</span> Group of four possible stereoisomers found in various plants: a.o., absinthe and mint

Thujone is a ketone and a monoterpene that occurs predominantly in two diastereomeric (epimeric) forms: (−)-α-thujone and (+)-β-thujone.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Caraway</span> Type of spice

Caraway, also known as meridian fennel and Persian cumin, is a biennial plant in the family Apiaceae, native to western Asia, Europe, and North Africa.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Fennel</span> Flowering plant species in the carrot family

Fennel is a flowering plant species in the carrot family. It is a hardy, perennial herb with yellow flowers and feathery leaves. It is indigenous to the shores of the Mediterranean but has become widely naturalized in many parts of the world, especially on dry soils near the sea coast and on riverbanks.

Pyrethrum was a genus of several Old World plants now classified as Chrysanthemum or Tanacetum which are cultivated as ornamentals for their showy flower heads. Pyrethrum continues to be used as a common name for plants formerly included in the genus Pyrethrum. Pyrethrum is also the name of a natural insecticide made from the dried flower heads of Chrysanthemum cinerariifolium and Chrysanthemum coccineum. The insecticidal compounds present in these species are pyrethrins.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Essential oil</span> Hydrophobic liquid containing volatile aroma compounds from plants

An essential oil is a concentrated hydrophobic liquid containing volatile chemical compounds from plants. Essential oils are also known as volatile oils, ethereal oils, aetheroleum, or simply as the oil of the plant from which they were extracted, such as oil of clove. An essential oil is essential in the sense that it contains the essence of the plant's fragrance—the characteristic fragrance of the plant from which it is derived. The term "essential" used here does not mean indispensable or usable by the human body, as with the terms essential amino acid or essential fatty acid, which are so called because they are nutritionally required by a living organism.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Basil</span> Important culinary herb

Basil, also called great basil, is a culinary herb of the family Lamiaceae (mints). It is a tender plant, and is used in cuisines worldwide. In Western cuisine, the generic term "basil" refers to the variety also known as sweet basil or Genovese basil. Basil is native to tropical regions from Central Africa to Southeast Asia. In temperate climates basil is treated as an annual plant, however, basil can be grown as a short-lived perennial or biennial in warmer horticultural zones with tropical or Mediterranean climates.

<i>Tanacetum</i> Genus of flowering plants

Tanacetum is a genus of about 160 species of flowering plants in the aster family, Asteraceae, native to many regions of the Northern Hemisphere. They are known commonly as tansies. The name tansy can refer specifically to Tanacetum vulgare, which may be called the common tansy or garden tansy for clarity. The generic name Tanacetum means 'immortality' in Botanical Latin, since tansy was once placed between the burial sheets of the dead to repel vermin.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Tansy beetle</span> Species of beetle

The tansy beetle is a species of leaf beetle. The common name derives from its main foodplant, Tansy, but it can also use other wetland plants such as Gypsywort and Water Mint. It measures 7.7–10.5 mm in length and has a characteristic bright metallic green colouration, with pitted elytra and a coppery tinge. In addition to the nominotypical subspecies, which repeats the specific name, C. graminis graminis, there are five further distinct subspecies of Tansy beetle, which, collectively, have a Palearctic distribution, although in the majority of countries where it is found the species is declining. In the United Kingdom it is designated as 'Nationally Rare'. The stronghold population here is located along the banks of the river Ouse in York, North Yorkshire. Other, small, fenland populations exist at Woodwalton Fen and at Welney Wildfowl and Wetlands Trust (WWT) reserve.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Citronella oil</span> Fragrant essential oil derived from lemongrass

Citronella oil is an essential oil obtained from the leaves and stems of different species of Cymbopogon (lemongrass). The oil is used extensively as a source of perfumery chemicals such as citronellal, citronellol, and geraniol. These chemicals find extensive use in soap, candles and incense, perfumery, cosmetic, and flavouring industries throughout the world.

<i>Artemisia absinthium</i> Species of plant

Artemisia absinthium, otherwise known as common wormwood, is a species of Artemisia native to North Africa and temperate regions of Eurasia, and widely naturalized in Canada and the northern United States. It is grown as an ornamental plant and is used as an ingredient in the spirit absinthe and some other alcoholic beverages.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Insect repellent</span> Substance which repels insects

An insect repellent is a substance applied to the skin, clothing, or other surfaces to discourage insects from landing or climbing on that surface. Insect repellents help prevent and control the outbreak of insect-borne diseases such as malaria, Lyme disease, dengue fever, bubonic plague, river blindness, and West Nile fever. Pest animals commonly serving as vectors for disease include insects such as flea, fly, and mosquito; and ticks (arachnids).

<i>Backhousia citriodora</i> Species of tree

Backhousia citriodora is a flowering plant in the family Myrtaceae, genus Backhousia. It is endemic to subtropical rainforests of central and south-eastern Queensland, Australia, with a natural distribution from Mackay to Brisbane.

<i>Tanacetum balsamita</i> Species of herb

Tanacetum balsamita is a perennial temperate herb known as costmary, alecost, balsam herb, bible leaf, or mint geranium.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Mugwort</span> Genus of flowering plants used as herbs

Mugwort is a common name for several species of aromatic flowering plants in the genus Artemisia. In Europe, mugwort most often refers to the species Artemisia vulgaris, or common mugwort. In East Asia the species Artemisia argyi is often called "Chinese mugwort" in the context of traditional Chinese medicine, Ngai Chou in Cantonese or àicǎo (艾草) in Mandarin. Artemisia princeps is a mugwort known in Korea as ssuk (쑥) and in Japan as yomogi (ヨモギ). While other species are sometimes referred to by more specific common names, they may be called simply "mugwort" in many contexts.

<i>Artemisia afra</i> Species of flowering plant

Artemisia afra, the African wormwood,[4] is a common species of the genus Artemisia in Africa, with a wide distribution from South Africa, to areas reaching to the North and East, as far north as Ethiopia.

<i>Cymbopogon martinii</i> Species of grass

Cymbopogon martinii is a species of grass in the genus Cymbopogon (lemongrasses) native to India and Indochina but widely cultivated in many places for its aromatic oil. It is best known by the common name palmarosa as it smells sweet and rose-like. Other common names include Indian geranium, gingergrass, rosha, and rosha grass.

<i>Tanacetum cinerariifolium</i> Species of flowering plant

Tanacetum cinerariifolium is a species of flowering plant in the aster family, Asteraceae, and formerly part of the genus Pyrethrum, but now placed in the genus Chrysanthemum, or the genus Tanacetum by some biologists. It is called the Dalmatian chrysanthemum or Dalmatian pyrethrum, denoting its origin in that region of Europe (Dalmatia). It looks more like the common daisy than other pyrethrums do. Its flowers, typically white with yellow centers, grow from numerous fairly rigid stems. Plants have blue-green leaves and grow to 45 to 100 cm in height.

References

This page is based on this Wikipedia article
Text is available under the CC BY-SA 4.0 license; additional terms may apply.
Images, videos and audio are available under their respective licenses.