Thin ideal

Last updated

The thin ideal is the concept of the ideally slim female body. [1] The common perception of this ideal is a woman who possesses a slender, feminine physique with a small waist and little body fat. [1] The size that the thin ideal woman should be is decreasing while the rate of female obesity is simultaneously increasing, making this iconic body difficult for women to maintain. [2] This creates a gap between the actual appearance of an average woman’s body and its expected appearance which, depending on the extent to which a woman internalizes the necessity of living up to this ideal for her well-being and peace of mind, may have serious psychological effects. [2]

Contents

Internalization

The degree to which women are psychologically affected by the thin ideal depends to what extent the ideal is internalized. [3] An article from a journal written by Ahern, et al. highlights these ideals. [4] Women generally relate the ideally thin body to positive life outcomes such as happiness, confidence, and romantic success, and consequently a majority of women value the thin ideal to some extent. [5]

However, it is important to recognize the distinction between women who are aware of the advantage of thinness versus those who internalize the ideal and make it a personal belief system. [6] Although the idea of the thin ideal seems omnipresent, not all women identify with the ideal in the same manner and not all are affected by it negatively. [7] For example, after seeing an image of a thin woman in the media, some women may fantasize themselves as thinner and more attractive. [5] To some, this exposure to the thin ideal may make thinness seem more attainable and act as a motivational factor in self-improvement. [5]

Studies

Many studies have been performed regarding the effect of the thin ideal. Some of these indicate that after women are shown images of ultra-thin models, they experience psychological and behavioral features associated with eating disorders, such as increased anger, depressed mood, body dissatisfaction, and low self-esteem. [2] The images had an immediate negative effect on the mood of the participating women. [2] In a study conducted by Halliwell and Dittmar (2004), [8] of 202 UK women, they found that those exposed to thin models created greater body-image anxiety in women who internalised the thin ideal compared to those who were exposed to average-sized models. Another study demonstrated that positive associations women made with underweight models frequently led to weight-focused anxiety and an elevated drive for thinness, both of which are principal symptoms of eating disorders. [3] [4] Several longitudinal studies have suggested that internalization of the thin ideal is a precursor to body image dissatisfaction and unnecessary dieting in women of a healthy weight. [9] As Evans stated in the Psychology of Women Quarterly, “Women often feel dissatisfied with their appearance after comparing themselves to other females who epitomize the thin-ideal standard of beauty.” [10]

Development

A study by Mia Sypeck of The American University’s Department of Psychology examined the covers of the four most popular fashion magazines over the last fifty years. [11] Several trends were discovered. Firstly, the body size of fashion models decreased, indicating that the thin ideal has been shrinking in size. [11] Secondly, there was a substantial rise in pictures that show the female body, which suggests that society has been placing more value on the way women's bodies appear.

Media

Many theorists believe that the ultra-thin images in the media play a significant part in the influence of body dissatisfaction, disordered eating, and internalization of the thin ideal. [4] [12] A correlational study by Stice et al. (2004) suggests that a larger number of media exposures may be linked to a greater risk of body dissatisfaction, internalization of the thin ideal, and development of eating disorders symptoms. [6] However, few of the population in the study actually developed clinical eating disorders, and as the study was correlational, the said causes and effects may not be directly linked. [6] For example, many women enjoy looking at fashion magazines for entertainment and do not experience immediate negative effects. Consequently, the theory that the media directly influences low self-esteem and body image dissatisfaction may be too simple. [5]

Social influences

Contents of "thin-ideal media" include the portrayal of thinness as a desirable trait, and protagonists in media are thin, exceptionally beautiful, desirable, and successful. [13] According to the sociocultural model of bulimia, eating disorders are a product of the increasing pressures for women in our society to achieve an ultra-slender body. [14] There are two components to the social comparison theory: Downward social comparison, comparison to others perceived to be less fortunate than ourselves, and usually serves to enhance mood or self-worth; upward social comparison, comparison to others we perceive as socially better than ourselves, which usually leads to negative moods and self-evaluation. [15] In order to attempt to measure women's media-ideal internalization and comparison, researchers developed the Sociocultural Attitudes Towards Appearance Questionnaire. Women with a high degree of internalization are more likely to use thin-ideal media images as an upward comparison target and consequently feel that they do not meet the thin-ideal standard of attractiveness. [16] Women in the media are presented as having different roles in society depending on context and demographics. Television, magazines, and newspapers along with advertisements have a powerful and influential role in society, and women in the media are often role models for young, impressionable girls. Mass media affect dominant societal values and can influence the population. "Of the many variables thought to promote eating pathology, sociocultural factors are considered paramount." [17]

Media-portrayed idealized images of the female body shape are linked to body dissatisfaction among women. The effects of these images have also been linked to other problems among women including depression, obesity, and extreme dieting. [18] "The sociocultural etiological model is based on the premise that societal factors send powerful messages to girls and young women that certain physical attributes are unacceptable." [19] Women are presented with thin-ideal images on a regular basis and are conditioned to compare themselves to these images; research shows that women with high body image self-discrepancy are more at risk of negative correlations from exposure to thin-ideal media. [15] "Self-discrepancies are representations in the self-concept of ways in which one falls short of some important standard." [20] Women who possess a body image self-discrepancy associate failure to reach a thin-ideal with their self-concept. Research shows that only women who were dissatisfied with their physical appearance had concerns regarding social comparison to the thin ideal. [21]

Impact on women

Correlational studies have linked exposure to media that contain ultra-thin ideals to increased body-dissatisfaction, thin-ideal internalization, self-discrepancies, and eating pathology in young women. Sociocultural theory maintains that current societal standards for beauty emphasize the desirability of thinness, and thinness at a level impossible for many women to achieve by healthy means. [22] Photo manipulation that elongates legs and narrows hips of already skinny models have harmful effects on young women because they compare themselves to those images. Idealized images also suggest that real women do not measure up to such presentations of beauty, and they cannot reasonably obtain such physical expectations. [23] The standard media-portrayed thin ideal woman is about 15% below the average female body weight, "This ideal stresses slimness, youth and androgyny, rather than the normative female body. The thin-ideal woman portrayed in the media is biogenetically difficult, if not impossible, for the majority of women" to achieve. [12]

Studies show the degree of thin-ideal internalization is correlated with the severity of eating disorder pathology. "Evidence also has shown that endorsement of the thin-ideal correlates with both bulimic symptoms and subsequent diagnosis of bulimia." [12] Stice and Shaw suggested in a study done in 1994 that thin-ideal media body images may produce negative mood states in women. Prolonged exposure to the thin-ideal can cause women to compare themselves to these images and lead to feelings of inadequacy. [12] Stice and Shaw suggested that women who over-internalize the thin-ideal image tend to experience increased body dissatisfaction and a decrease in self-esteem. As women over-internalize they may set unrealistic goals for themselves regarding their body dimension. "Those who have over-internalized the thin-ideal stereotype are convinced that achieving a thin-ideal body is the only way to be popular, loveable, successful, and happy." [14]

When it comes to the impact on women's self-esteem, exposure to thin models does not necessarily mean that there will be a negative impact. The way that the models are presented makes a difference. A study has shown that there is a positive impact on women's self-esteem when they are shown moderately thin, not extremely thin models. One study has shown that exposure to extremely thin and extremely heavy models both have a negative effect on the way that some women in the study might see their own bodies. As for models that are only moderately thin or moderately heavy there doesn’t seem to be a negative impact but a positive one on self-image. (Smeesters and Mandel 581).” If the media started to do this more when it comes to models an increase of self-esteem could happen. [24]

Women in magazines

Women's magazines focus mainly on "domestic" aspects of life, including marriage, child-rearing, beauty, etc. [25] More than 75% of women’s magazines include at least one ad or article about how to change their physical appearance by diet, exercise, or cosmetic surgery. [26] Twenty-five percent of the magazines contained messages regarding weight loss and dieting suggestions. Many women's magazines focus on how to lead a better life by improving physical appearance, while men's magazines provide information about hobbies, activities, and entertainment. [27] When women are constantly exposed to ways to alter their appearance, they may over-internalize and feel pressure to look like the images they see.

The analyses of images in women's magazines observed from 1901 to 1980 and from 1959 to 1999 show that the featured models have become thinner over time, making the thin ideal even more difficult to achieve. [18]

Women on television

According to researchers, 94% of females on television are thinner than the average women (168.5lbs) [28] in the United States. [29] It is normal in society today for women to work and provide an income, but it is still common for women on television to be portrayed in traditional female roles. According to the study done by Donald M. Davis, "While many of society's institutions have moved forward with respect to women, television may be lagging behind, at least as evidenced by demographic variables." [30]

Modeling

The top modeling and fashion industries often embrace the ultra-thin appearance. A majority of elite models are approximately 20% underweight, exceeding the anorexia nervosa indicator of 15% underweight. [22] Fashion models and modeling agencies are often blamed for the societal pressures that cause young women to develop eating disorders. Others argue that modeling agencies and fashion cannot be blamed for the disordered eating behavior of easily influenced adolescents. However, after several incidents in which models died from anorexia nervosa, such as the case of Ana Carolina Reston, several major fashion modeling events have adopted new policies to encourage healthy body weights. [31] For example, Madrid Fashion Week officials banned models with a body mass index lower than eighteen. [32] Comparable guidelines have been adopted in similar fashion events in other countries, such as Brazil and Argentina. [32]

See also

Related Research Articles

An eating disorder is a mental disorder defined by abnormal eating behaviors that negatively affect a person's physical or mental health. Types of eating disorders include binge eating disorder, where the patient eats a large amount in a short period of time; anorexia nervosa, where the person has an intense fear of gaining weight and restricts food or overexercises to manage this fear; bulimia nervosa, where individuals eat a large quantity (binging) then try to rid themselves of the food (purging); pica, where the patient eats non-food items; rumination syndrome, where the patient regurgitates undigested or minimally digested food; avoidant/restrictive food intake disorder (ARFID), where people have a reduced or selective food intake due to some psychological reasons; and a group of other specified feeding or eating disorders. Anxiety disorders, depression and substance abuse are common among people with eating disorders. These disorders do not include obesity. People often experience comorbidity between an eating disorder and OCD. It is estimated 20–60% of patients with an ED have a history of OCD.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Bulimia nervosa</span> Type of eating disorder

Bulimia nervosa, also known as simply bulimia, is an eating disorder characterized by binge eating followed by purging or fasting, and excessive concern with body shape and weight. This activity aims to expel the body of calories eaten from the binging phase of the process. Binge eating refers to eating a large amount of food in a short amount of time. Purging refers to the attempts to get rid of the food consumed. This may be done by vomiting or taking laxatives.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Body dysmorphic disorder</span> Mental disorder

Body dysmorphic disorder (BDD), occasionally still called dysmorphia, is a mental disorder characterized by the obsessive idea that some aspect of one's own body part or appearance is severely flawed and therefore warrants exceptional measures to hide or fix it. In BDD's delusional variant, the flaw is imagined. If the flaw is actual, its importance is severely exaggerated. Whether the physical imperfection is real or not, thoughts about it are pervasive and intrusive and may occupy the mind of the sufferer for many hours every day, causing severe distress and impairing otherwise normal activities. BDD is classified as a somatoform disorder, and the DSM-5 categorizes BDD in the obsessive–compulsive spectrum, and distinguishes it from anorexia nervosa.

In social philosophy, objectification is the act of treating a person as an object or a thing. It is part of dehumanization, the act of disavowing the humanity of others. Sexual objectification, the act of treating a person as a mere object of sexual desire, is a subset of objectification, as is self-objectification, the objectification of one's self. In Marxism, the objectification of social relationships is discussed as "reification".

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Body image</span> Aesthetic perception of ones own body

Body image is a person's thoughts, feelings and perception of the aesthetics or sexual attractiveness of their own body. The concept of body image is used in a number of disciplines, including neuroscience, psychology, medicine, psychiatry, psychoanalysis, philosophy, cultural and feminist studies; the media also often uses the term. Across these disciplines, there is no single consensus definition, but broadly speaking body image consists of the ways people view themselves; their memories, experiences, assumptions, and comparisons about their own appearances; and their overall attitudes towards their own respective heights, shapes, and weights—all of which are shaped by prevalent social and cultural ideals.

Disordered eating describes a variety of abnormal eating behaviors that, by themselves, do not warrant diagnosis of an eating disorder.

Self-objectification is when people view themselves as objects for use instead of as human beings. Self-objectification is a result of objectification, and is commonly discussed in the topic of sex and gender. Both men and women struggle with self-objectification, but it is most commonly seen among women. According to Calogero, self-objectification explains the psychological process by which women internalise people’s objectification of their bodies, resulting in them constantly criticizing their own bodies.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Cosmetics advertising</span> Promotion of cosmetics and beauty products

Cosmetic advertising is the promotion of cosmetics and beauty products by the cosmetics industry through a variety of media. The advertising campaigns are usually aimed at women wishing to improve their appearance, commonly to increase physical attractiveness and reduce the signs of ageing.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Self-image</span> Mental picture of self that comes from different sources

Self-image is the mental picture, generally of a kind that is quite resistant to change, that depicts not only details that are potentially available to an objective investigation by others, but also items that have been learned by persons about themselves, either from personal experiences or by internalizing the judgments of others.

The figure rating scale (FRS), also known as the Stunkard scale, is a psychometric measurement originally developed in 1983 to communicate about the unknown weights of a research subject's absent relatives, and since adapted to assess body image.

The 'effects of advertising on body image have been studied by researchers, ranging from psychologists to marketing professionals. "These days we know that the media and body image are closely related. Particularly, the body image advertising portrays affects our body image. Of course, many other things influence our body image: parenting, education, intimate relationships, and so on. The popular media does have a big impact, though" This is because thousands of advertisements contain messages about physical attractiveness and beauty, examples of which include commercials for clothes, cosmetics, weight reduction, and physical fitness. Researchers have conducted studies in an attempt to see if such advertisements have effects on teenage body image, and what those effects might be.

Body shape refers to the many physical attributes of the human body that make up its appearance, including size and countenance. Body shape has come to imply not only sexual/reproductive ability, but wellness and fitness. In the West, slenderness is associated with happiness, success, youth, and social acceptability. Being overweight is associated with laziness. The media promote a weight-conscious standard for women more often than for men. Deviance from these norms result in social consequences. The media perpetuate this ideal in various ways, particularly glorifying and focusing on thin actors and actresses, models, and other public figures while avoiding the use or image of overweight individuals. This thin ideal represents less than 5% of the American population.

Media consumption or media diet is the sum of information and entertainment media taken in by an individual or group. It includes activities such as interacting with new media, reading books and magazines, watching television and film, and listening to radio. An active media consumer must have the capacity for skepticism, judgement, free thinking, questioning, and understanding.Media consumption is to maximize the interests of consumers.

The exploitation of women in mass media is the use or portrayal of women in mass media as objects to increase the appeal of media or a product to the detriment of, or without regard to, the interests of the women portrayed, or women in general. This process includes the presentation of women as sexual objects and the setting of feminine beauty ideals that women are expected to reflect. Sexual exploitation of women in the media dates back to 19th century Paris, in which ballerinas were exposed to harassment and objectification. The ballerinas in the Paris Opera Ballet were ogled by their male audience members and often even expected to perform sexual favors for the male subscribers behind the scenes. Feminists and other advocates of women's rights have criticized such exploitation. The most often criticized aspect of the use of women in mass media is sexual objectification, but dismemberment can be a part of the objectification as well.

The feminine beauty ideal is a specific set of beauty standards regarding traits that are ingrained in women throughout their lives and from a young age to increase their perceived physical attractiveness. It is a phenomenon experienced by many women in the world, though the traits change over time and vary in country and culture.

Gender plays a role in mass media and is represented within media platforms. These platforms are not limited to film, radio, television, advertisement, social media, and video games. Initiatives and resources exist to promote gender equality and reinforce women's empowerment in the media industry and representations. For example, UNESCO, in cooperation with the International Federation of Journalists, elaborated the Gender-sensitive Indicators for Media contributing to gender equality and women's empowerment in all forms of media.

African Americans and their skin color and hair were once considered unattractive by white people. Black women and their bodies have been devalued and rejected by white ideal beauty standards.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Body positivity</span> Movement advocating the mental quality that seeks to accept oneself and ones body

Body positivity is a social movement focused on the acceptance of all bodies, regardless of size, shape, skin tone, gender, and physical abilities, while challenging present-day beauty standards as an undesirable social construct. Proponents focus on the appreciation of the functionality and health of the human body, instead of its physiological appearance.

Body image disturbance (BID) is a common symptom in patients with eating disorders and is characterized by an altered perception of one's own body.

Body checking is a compulsive behaviour related but not exclusive to various forms of body dysmorphic disorders. It involves frequently collecting various information about one’s own body in terms of size, shape, appearance or weight. Frequent expressions of this form of behaviour entails for example mirror checking, trying to feel one’s own bones, pinching the abdomen, frequent body weight measurement and comparing your own body to that of others. Studies have shown that an increased rate of body checking correlates with an overall increased dissatisfaction with the own body.

References

  1. 1 2 Low, K. G.; Charanasomboon, S.; Brown, C.; Hiltunen, G.; Long, K.; Reinhalter, K.; Jones, H. (2003). "Internalization of the Thin Ideal, Weight and Body Image Concerns". Social Behavior and Personality. 31: 81–89. doi:10.2224/sbp.2003.31.1.81.
  2. 1 2 3 4 Pinhas, Leora, Brenda B. Toner, Alisha Ali, Paul E. Garfinkel, and Noreen Stuckless. "The Effects of the Ideal of Female Beauty on Mood and Body Satisfaction." International Journal of Eating Disorders (1998): 223-26.
  3. 1 2 Ahern, Amy L.; Bennett, Kate M.; Kelly, Michelle; Hetherington, Marion M. (2011). "A Qualitative Exploration of Young Women's Attitudes towards the Thin Ideal". Journal of Health Psychology. 16 (1): 70–79. doi:10.1177/1359105310367690. PMID   20709877. S2CID   44966631.
  4. 1 2 3 Ahern, A. L.; Bennett, K. M.; Hetherington, M. M. (2008). "Internalization of the Ultra-Thin Ideal: Positive Implicit Associations with Underweight Fashion Models are Associated with Drive for Thinness in Young Women". Eating Disorders. 16 (4): 294–307. doi:10.1080/10640260802115852. PMID   18568920. S2CID   2473526.
  5. 1 2 3 4 Tiggemann, M.; Polivy, J.; Hargreaves, D. (2009). "The Processing of Thin Ideals in Fashion Magazines: A Source of Social Comparison or Fantasy?". Journal of Social and Clinical Psychology. 28: 73–93. doi:10.1521/jscp.2009.28.1.73. hdl: 2328/26079 .
  6. 1 2 3 Dittmar, H.; Howard, S. (2004). "Thin-Ideal Internalization and Social Comparison Tendency as Moderators of Media Models' Impact on Women's Body-Focused Anxiety". Journal of Social and Clinical Psychology. 23 (6): 768–791. doi:10.1521/jscp.23.6.768.54799.
  7. ↑ Mask, Lisa; Blanchard, Celine M. (2011). "The Protective Role of General Self-determination against 'thin Ideal' Media Exposure on Women's Body Image and Eating-related Concerns". Journal of Health Psychology. 16 (3): 489–99. doi:10.1177/1359105310385367. PMID   21224335. S2CID   39541465.
  8. ↑ Does Thin Always Sell? The Moderating Role of Thin Ideal: Internalization on Adv Internalization on Advertising E tising Effectiveness, Atlantic Marketing Journal, May 2015
  9. ↑ Juarascio, Adrienne S., Evan M. Forman, C. Alix Timko, James D. Herbert, Meghan Butryn, and Michael Lowe. "Implicit Internalization of the Thin Ideal as a Predictor of Increases in Weight, Body Dissatisfaction, and Disordered Eating." Eating Behaviors 12.3 (2011): 207-13.
  10. ↑ Evans, Peggy Chin (2003). ""IF Only I Were Thin Like Her, Maybe I Could be Happy Like Her": The Self-Implications of Associating a Thin Female Ideal with Life Success". Psychology of Women Quarterly. 27 (3): 209. doi:10.1111/1471-6402.00100. S2CID   144639686.
  11. 1 2 Sypeck, Mia F., James J. Gray, and Anthony H. Ahrens. "No Longer Just a Pretty Face: Fashion Magazines' Depictions of Ideal Female Beauty from 1959 to 1999." International Journal of Eating Disorders (2003): 342-47.
  12. 1 2 3 4 Hawkins, N.; Richards, P. S.; Granley, H. M. C.; Stein, D. M. (2004). "The Impact of Exposure to the Thin-Ideal Media Image on Women". Eating Disorders. 12 (1): 35–50. doi:10.1080/10640260490267751. PMID   16864303. S2CID   28802161.
  13. ↑ Harrison, Kristen (2006). "The Body Electric: Thin-Ideal Media and Eating Disorders in Adolescents". Journal of Communication. 50 (3): 119–143. doi:10.1093/joc/50.3.119. hdl: 2027.42/75586 .
  14. 1 2 Stice, E.; Shaw, H. E. (1994). "Adverse Effects of the Media Portrayed Thin-Ideal on Women and Linkages to Bulimic Symptomatology". Journal of Social and Clinical Psychology. 13 (3): 288–308. doi:10.1521/jscp.1994.13.3.288.
  15. 1 2 Bessenoff, G. R. (September 2006). "Can the Media Affect Us? Social Comparison, Self-Discrepancy, and the Thin Ideal". Psychology of Women Quarterly. 30 (3): 239–251. doi:10.1111/j.1471-6402.2006.00292.x. S2CID   145108451.
  16. ↑ Striegel-Moore, R.H.; D.L. Franko (2002). "Body image issues among girls and women". Body Image: A Handbook of Theory, Research, and Clinical Practice: 183–191.
  17. ↑ Slevec, Julie; Marika Tiggemann (2011). "Media Exposure, Body Dissatisfaction, and Disordered Eating in Middle Aged Women". Psychology of Women Quarterly. 35 (4): 617–627. doi:10.1177/0361684311420249. S2CID   144877417.
  18. 1 2 Knobloch-Westerwick, Silvia; Josselyn Crane (March 2011). "A Losing Battle: Effects of Prolonged Exposure to Thin-Ideal Images on Dieting and Body Satisfaction". Communication Research. 39: 79–102. doi:10.1177/0093650211400596. S2CID   28402252.
  19. ↑ DiNicola, V.F. (1990). "Anorexia multiform: Self-starvation in historical and cultural context". Transcultural Psychiatric Research Review. 27 (4): 245–286. doi:10.1177/136346159002700401. S2CID   144566470.
  20. ↑ Higgins, E.T. (1987). "Self-discrepancy: A theory relating self and affect". Psychological Review. 94 (3): 319–340. doi:10.1037/0033-295x.94.3.319. PMID   3615707.
  21. ↑ Posavac, H.D. (1998). "Exposure to media images of female attractiveness and concern with body weight among young women". Sex Roles. 38 (3/4): 187–201. doi:10.1023/A:1018729015490. S2CID   56087076.
  22. 1 2 Brown, A.; Dittmar, H. (2005). "Think "Thin" and Feel Bad: The Role of Appearance Schema Activation, Attention Level, and Thin–Ideal Internalization for Young Women's Responses to Ultra–Thin Media Ideals". Journal of Social and Clinical Psychology. 24 (8): 1088–1113. doi:10.1521/jscp.2005.24.8.1088.
  23. ↑ Lester, Paul Martin (2003). Images that Injure: Pictorial Stereotypes in the Media (Second ed.). Westport, CT: Praeger Publishers.
  24. ↑ "Positive And Negative Media Image Effects On The Self." Journal of Consumer Research 32.4 (2006): 576-582. Academic Search Complete. Web. 6 Mar. 2016.
  25. ↑ (Gaye Tuchman. The Symbolic Annihilation of Women by the Mass Media)
  26. ↑ "Beauty and Body Image in the Media". Media Awareness Network. Archived from the original on 18 January 2009. Retrieved 30 March 2012.
  27. ↑ Malkin, Amy R.; Kimberlie Wornian; Joan C. Chrisler (1999). "Women and Weight: Gendered Messages on Magazine Covers". Sex Roles. 40 (7/8): 647–655. doi:10.1023/A:1018848332464. S2CID   142601261.
  28. ↑ https://www.cdc.gov/nchs/data/series/sr_03/sr03_039.pdf [ bare URL PDF ]
  29. ↑ Gonzalez-Lavin, A.; L. Smolak (2005). "Women's exposure to thin-and-beautiful media images". Body Image. 2 (1): 74–80. doi:10.1016/j.bodyim.2004.11.001. PMID   18089176.
  30. ↑ Davis, Donald M. (1990). "Portrayals of Women in prime-time network television". Sex Roles. 23 (5–6): 325–332. doi:10.1007/bf00290052. S2CID   144544470.
  31. ↑ "The Skinny on Models." Weekly Reader Corporation 2011: 7.
  32. 1 2 Agrell, Siri (2008). "Thin Police". Canadian Medical Association Journal. 179 (2): 204. doi:10.1503/cmaj.080894. PMC   2443217 .
This page is based on this Wikipedia article
Text is available under the CC BY-SA 4.0 license; additional terms may apply.
Images, videos and audio are available under their respective licenses.