 |
 | This article needs additional citations for verification .(November 2017) |
The 3H-model of motivation ("3H" stands for the "three components of motivation") was developed by Hugo M. Kehr of UC Berkeley. The 3C-model is an integrative, empirically validated theory of motivation that can be used for systematic motivation diagnosis and intervention.
"3C" stands for the three components of motivation, which can be illustrated as three partially overlapping circles (see Fig. 1). In psychological terminology, the three components are explicit (self-attributed) motives, implicit (unconscious) motives, and perceived abilities. For practical applications, the metaphor "head", "heart" and "hand", which goes back to Johann Heinrich Pestalozzi, is being used.[ citation needed ]
Fulfilment of the components head and heart results in intrinsic motivation: The person is fully concentrated and likes to perform the activity at hand. Hereby, it does not matter whether the component hand is also fulfilled: Skills and abilities are not a prerequisite for intrinsic motivation.
Optimal motivation results from all three components being fulfilled (represented by the overlap section of the three circles in Figure 1). Here, the person is intrinsically motivated and also has all the skills and abilities needed. This situation is associated with the experience of flow. However, if one of the two components head or heart is not fulfilled (i.e., the person is lacking cognitive support for the activity or experiences unpleasant belly-aches), the person will struggle when performing the activity. This situation may be experienced as "demotivation". Here, willpower (volition) is needed in order to perform the activity and suppress aversion or doubt. Volitional self-control can be momentarily successful – but it also induces a loss of energy and can, in the long run, lead to over-control and health problems.[ citation needed ]
Two kinds of volition need to be distinguished: [1] [2] Volition Type 1 is needed for tasks which are supported by the head but lack support from the heart. This is the case, for instance, when important, but aversive tasks need to be fulfilled. Volition Type 2 is needed for tasks that are supported by the heart but not the head; such situations may be experienced as temptation or fear.
Lacking support by the component hand requires problem-solving mechanisms to compensate one's lacking skills and abilities, for instance by asking others for help.[ citation needed ]
In practical application, for instance in self-management, [3] [4] in coaching, [5] in leadership training, [6] or in change management, [7] the 3C-model can be used for systematic diagnosis of motivation deficits and intervention.
For diagnostical purposes, fulfilment of the three components of motivation can be assessed with the so-called 3C-check. The following questions can be used (see Figure 2):
Based on the answers to these questions, appropriate support can be sought (see Figure 3).[ citation needed ]
Interventions based on the 3C-check can best be illustrated with an example. Let us assume a sales manager has performed a 3C-check with her sales representative with respect to a guided sales pitch.
If the 3C-check shows that the sales pitch in use is supported by the components head and heart, but not the component hand (this combination is represented by Section A in Fig. 3), it should first be discussed whether the lack of skill and ability is only subjective (i.e., felt by the sales representative) or also objective. In case of an objective skill and ability deficit, (e.g., when the co-worker is not yet familiar with the guidelines or the calculation methods used), measures like training, coaching, or collegial advice may be appropriate. Moreover, other colleagues may be asked to assist the sales representative and help overcome the hand-related obstacle. In case of a subjective skill and ability deficit, the manager could try to increase the sales representative's self-efficacy by providing positive feedback about her employee's prior performance.
The 3C-check might also reveal lacking support by the components head (represented by sector B in Fig. 3): The sales representative may not be convinced, that the guided sales pitch in use is instrumental, or she prefers other sales channels. Here, the supervisor is well advised to try to increase her employee's cognitive support. For instance, she could convince her with arguments, set extrinsic rewards (e.g., a bonus) or solve goal conflicts by reprioritizing goals.[ citation needed ]
But what if the 3C-check shows that the components head and hand are fulfilled, but not the component heart (represented by sector C in Fig. 3)? That is if the sales representative finds the task important and instrumental and has all the required skills and abilities, but still does not like her task?
Perhaps she does not like following the rigid sales pitch guideline, she may not like to visit customers at home, or she may be anxious to receive a negative response from her customers. Here, her manager is well-advised to not ignore her lacking emotional support but to seek possible solutions. She could try to modify the task so that it better matches her employee's underlying motives or to find motive-congruent incentives. Kehr and von Rosenstiel [4] call this "metamotivation". For example, if her employee's has a strong need for affiliation, she could try to preferably allocate uncomplicated, friendly customers to her, or to organize the sales pitch as a team event. In addition, the manager could assist her employee in finding a personal vision which matches her employees motives. These measures, if successful, arouse the component heart and increase one's emotional support. [8] Otherwise, the managers may consult her sales representative in finding effective volitional strategies to overcome her motivational barriers. Kehr und von Rosenstiel [4] call this "metavolition". Here, it seems advisable to reduce overcontrol (e.g., negative fantasies, excessive impulse control, too much planning) and rather motivate oneself by reframing (positive fantasies) or by changing aversive framework conditions, for instance by conducting the sales pitch in a neutral environment.
If the 3C-check shows support from all three components (represented by the overlap section of the three circles in Fig. 3), the manager can delegate the task to her co-worker and trust her co-worker's self-management. However, she might still want to keep in touch with her employee and be wary that the boundary conditions could become aversive or her co-workers motivation might change. Further, the manager should also consider future challenges for her co-worker.
Initially, the 3C-model was published as the "compensatory model of work motivation and volition". [9] The original title referred to one of the central assumptions of the model, namely that volition compensates for insufficient motivation. Because of the potential confusion with "worker compensation", however, the name was changed to "3C-model."[ citation needed ] The notion of three independent components of motivation is based on McClellands [10] [11] differentiation of "motives, skills, and values".
The 3C-model has attracted considerable empirical research conducted at the University of Munich, UC Berkeley, MGSM in Sydney and the Technische Universität München, amongst others. An overview of the research regarding the 3C-model is given by Kehr (2014). [2] Key results are:
Certain education styles are conducive for the development of discrepancies between head and heart, so-called motive discrepancies. [12]
Discrepancies between head and heart impair well-being [1] and lead to burnout. [13]
Discrepancies between head and heart reduce one's willpower. [14] [1]
Fear motives, e.g. fear of rejection, reduce one's willpower and well-being. [15]
Flow results from all three components of the 3C-model being fulfilled. [16] [17]
A team is a group of individuals working together to achieve their goal.
A performance is an act or process of staging or presenting a play, concert, or other form of entertainment. It is also defined as the action or process of carrying out or accomplishing an action, task, or function.
Motivation is an internal state that propels individuals to engage in goal-directed behavior. It is often understood as a force that explains why people or animals initiate, continue, or terminate a certain behavior at a particular time. It is a complex phenomenon and its precise definition is disputed. It contrasts with amotivation, which is a state of apathy or listlessness. Motivation is studied in fields like psychology, neuroscience, motivation science, and philosophy.
Volition, also known as will or conation, is the cognitive process by which an individual decides on and commits to a particular course of action. It is defined as purposive striving and is one of the primary human psychological functions. Others include affect, motivation, and cognition (thinking). Volitional processes can be applied consciously or they can be automatized as habits over time.
Flow in positive psychology, also known colloquially as being inthe zone or locked in, is the mental state in which a person performing some activity is fully immersed in a feeling of energized focus, full involvement, and enjoyment in the process of the activity. In essence, flow is characterized by the complete absorption in what one does, and a resulting transformation in one's sense of time. Flow is the melting together of action and consciousness; the state of finding a balance between a skill and how challenging that task is. It requires a high level of concentration. Flow is used as a coping skill for stress and anxiety when productively pursuing a form of leisure that matches one's skill set.
Content theory is a subset of motivational theories that try to define what motivates people. Content theories of motivation often describe a system of needs that motivate peoples' actions. While process theories of motivation attempt to explain how and why our motivations affect our behaviors, content theories of motivation attempt to define what those motives or needs are. Content theory includes the work of David McClelland, Abraham Maslow and other psychologists.
In psychology, self-efficacy is an individual's belief in their capacity to act in the ways necessary to reach specific goals. The concept was originally proposed by the psychologist Albert Bandura in 1977.
Self-determination theory (SDT) is a macro theory of human motivation and personality that concerns people's innate growth tendencies and innate psychological needs. It pertains to the motivation behind people's choices in the absence of external influences and distractions. SDT focuses on the degree to which human behavior is self-motivated and self-determined.
Self-regulated learning (SRL) is one of the domains of self-regulation, and is aligned most closely with educational aims. Broadly speaking, it refers to learning that is guided by metacognition, strategic action, and motivation to learn. A self-regulated learner "monitors, directs, and regulates actions toward goals of information acquisition, expanding expertise, and self-improvement”. In particular, self-regulated learners are cognizant of their academic strengths and weaknesses, and they have a repertoire of strategies they appropriately apply to tackle the day-to-day challenges of academic tasks. These learners hold incremental beliefs about intelligence and attribute their successes or failures to factors within their control.
Self-regulation theory (SRT) is a system of conscious, personal management that involves the process of guiding one's own thoughts, behaviors and feelings to reach goals. Self-regulation consists of several stages. In the stages individuals must function as contributors to their own motivation, behavior, and development within a network of reciprocally interacting influences.
Self-care has been defined as the process of establishing behaviors to ensure holistic well-being of oneself, to promote health, and actively manage illness when it occurs. Individuals engage in some form of self-care daily with food choices, exercise, sleep, and hygiene. Self-care is not only a solo activity, as the community—a group that supports the person performing self-care—overall plays a role in access to, implementation of, and success of self-care activities.
In psychology, a dual process theory provides an account of how thought can arise in two different ways, or as a result of two different processes. Often, the two processes consist of an implicit (automatic), unconscious process and an explicit (controlled), conscious process. Verbalized explicit processes or attitudes and actions may change with persuasion or education; though implicit process or attitudes usually take a long amount of time to change with the forming of new habits. Dual process theories can be found in social, personality, cognitive, and clinical psychology. It has also been linked with economics via prospect theory and behavioral economics, and increasingly in sociology through cultural analysis.
Expectancy–value theory has been developed in many different fields including education, health, communications, marketing and economics. Although the model differs in its meaning and implications for each field, the general idea is that there are expectations as well as values or beliefs that affect subsequent behavior.
Determination is a positive emotional feeling that promotes persevering towards a difficult goal in spite of obstacles. Determination occurs prior to goal attainment and serves to motivate behavior that will help achieve one's goal.
Job performance assesses whether a person performs a job well. Job performance, studied academically as part of industrial and organizational psychology, also forms a part of human resources management. Performance is an important criterion for organizational outcomes and success. John P. Campbell describes job performance as an individual-level variable, or something a single person does. This differentiates it from more encompassing constructs such as organizational performance or national performance, which are higher-level variables.
Procedural memory is a type of implicit memory which aids the performance of particular types of tasks without conscious awareness of these previous experiences.
Goal orientation, or achievement orientation, is an "individual disposition towards developing or validating one's ability in achievement settings". In general, an individual can be said to be mastery or performance oriented, based on whether one's goal is to develop one's ability or to demonstrate one's ability, respectively. A mastery orientation is also sometimes referred to as a learning orientation.
Leader development is defined as the "expansion of a person's capacity to be effective in leadership roles and processes". These roles and processes are ones that aid in setting direction, creating alignment and maintaining commitment in groups of people sharing common work. Most organizational leadership research and educational programs have focused on developing individual-based knowledge, skills, and abilities associated with formal leadership roles of individuals. Leader development therefore results by investing in human capital.
Social competence consists of social, emotional, cognitive, and behavioral skills needed for successful social adaptation. Social competence also reflects having the ability to take another's perspective concerning a situation, learn from past experiences, and apply that learning to the changes in social interactions.
In psychological theories of motivation, the Rubicon model, more completely the Rubicon model of action phases, makes a distinction between motivational and volitional processes. The Rubicon model "defines clear boundaries between motivational and action phases." The first boundary "separates the motivational process of the predecisional phase from the volitional processes of postdecisional phase." Another boundary is that between initiation and conclusion of an action. A self-regulatory feedback model incorporating these interfaces was proposed later by others, as illustrated in the figure.