ASL interpreting

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ASL interpreting is the real-time translation between American Sign Language (ASL) and another language (typically English) to allow communication between parties who do not share functional use of either language. Domains of practice include medical/mental health, legal, educational/vocational training, worship, and business settings. Interpretation may be performed consecutively, simultaneously or a combination of the two, by an individual, pair, or team of interpreters who employ various interpreting strategies. ASL interpretation has been overseen by the Registry of Interpreters for the Deaf since 1964.

Contents

Effective Communication

The Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA) requires that title II entities (State and local governments) and title III entities (businesses and nonprofit organizations that serve the public) communicate effectively with people who have communication disabilities, which includes hearing, vision, and speech disabilities, to "ensure that communication with people with these disabilities is equally effective as communication with people without disabilities." [1] The rules of effective communication "ensure that the person with a vision, hearing, or speech disability can communicate with, receive information from, and convey information to, the covered entity." [1]

To ensure effective communication, covered entities must provide auxiliary aids and services when needed and communicate with not only the person who is receiving the covered entity’s goods or services, but also their "companion," which includes any family member, friend, or associate of the person seeking or receiving an entity’s goods or services who is an appropriate person with whom the entity should communicate. [1]

While the ADA requires covered entities to provide interpreters as needed, there are two exceptions which a covered entity can rely on the person's companion: 1. "in an emergency involving an imminent threat to the safety or welfare of an individual or the public, an adult or minor child accompanying a person who uses sign language may be relied upon to interpret or facilitate communication only when a qualified interpreter is not available," [1] and 2. "in situations not involving an imminent threat, an adult accompanying someone who uses sign language may be relied upon to interpret or facilitate communication when a) the individual requests this, b) the accompanying adult agrees, and c) reliance on the accompanying adult is appropriate under the circumstances." [1] The second exception does not apply if the companion is a minor child and covered entities "may not rely on an accompanying adult to interpret when there is reason to doubt the person’s impartiality or effectiveness." [1]

ASL Interpreting as a Profession

According to the U.S. Department of Justice, a qualified interpreter is “someone who is able to interpret effectively, accurately, and impartially, both receptively (i.e., understanding what the person with the disability is saying) and expressively (i.e., having the skill needed to convey information back to that person) using any necessary specialized vocabulary.” [2] ASL interpreters work in a large variety of environments, including medical, legal, educational, mental health, vocational, and other environments. Interpreting is often viewed as a practice profession (other examples include law, teaching, counseling, medicine, etc.), which requires a careful judgment of interpersonal and environmental factors as well as expertise in the skills of the profession itself. [3] The interpreter must be able to understand the concepts they are seeing and hearing, perform the mental translation, and communicate them effectively in the second language. [4] Although the interpreter usually intends to be in the background of the conversation and not contribute beyond interpretation, overcoming differences between the languages often requires them to make judgments which might alter the flow of communication. As with any two languages, ASL and English do not have a one-to-one word correspondence, meaning interpreters cannot simply translate word-for-word. [5] They must determine how to effectively communicate what one interlocutor means, rather than strictly what they say, to the other. This leads to interpreters making judgment calls and considering things such as linguistic barriers. [6]

Qualifications

While the ADA does not mandate any specific credentials for working interpreters, with the exception of some states and territories that have minimum requirements for interpreters to work in specific settings, [2] the ADA does mandate the use of "qualified interpreters." Qualifying interpreters could be certified and/or have the right education, experience, and content knowledge for a particular job, but certification doesn't guarantee qualification for every job. Additionally, there are "substantial barriers to obtaining certification for historically marginalized groups." [2] Employers use various measures and factors to determine whether the interpreter meets ADA's definition of qualified; measures can include education, experience, certification, assessments, licensure, and other regulatory mandates on a state-by-state basis. [2]

Licensure is a legal requirement that outlines minimum competencies to perform interpreting services in a state. [2] This may require proof of education, certification, and/or an assessment. Many states offer a provisional or temporary license with restrictions on where an interpreter can work based on their skill level. [2]

Interpreters are required to possess a wide range of skills and attributes in order to effectively perform the duties required of them. Many 'soft' skills, such as etiquette, diplomacy, teamwork, and flexibility are complementary to the technical skills demanded by the participants in the interaction and the environment in which the interaction takes place. Although programs may vary widely based on the experience of the trainers, length and level of the program, and the institute in which it resides, the following outlines the broad topics that are required:

Training Programs

The history of interpreter training in the United States has only recently been organized and documented. [7] The US-based Registry of Interpreters for the Deaf maintains a list [8] of 53 certificate, 82 associate's, 57 bachelor's, and 8 graduate-level programs.

Employment Opportunities

The nature of the workforce has undergone dramatic changes over the past 30 years. Many ASL-English interpreters in the US are either self-employed or obtain their work from an agency. In both situations, they work on a freelance basis. This type of employment status offers flexibility, self-determination with regard to hours, and the opportunity to encounter a wide range of clients in a wide range of environments. Opportunities also exist for interpreters to work on staff for various organizations such as in educational institutes (elementary, secondary, and post-secondary) or in organizations where a number of Deaf people are employed.

While video remote interpreting (akin to remote simultaneous interpreting or RSI among spoken language practitioners) has existed for decades, the COVID-19 pandemic saw a mass transition to virtual environments.

Code of Ethics

Interpreters who use signed and spoken languages can join organizations such as the Registry of Interpreters for the Deaf (RID) to provide quality support to people who may require their services and further advance this line of work. The RID co-authored the ethical code of conduct for interpreters w/the National Association of the Deaf (NAD). This organization outlines this code of ethics for interpreters to allow them to be held accountable and create an environment of trust between them and their clients. There are 7 Tenets in their Ethical Code:

There are 48 states with RID Chapters and representatives in Puerto Rico and the District of Columbia, not including Delaware and Maryland.

Code of Ethics for Educational Interpreters

The National Association of Interpreters in Education [9] (NAIE) has a Code of Ethics for ASL Interpreters that work in educational settings and translate sign language, cued language, and oral languages. These ASL interpreters are commonly referred to as "educational interpreters." There are 7 main tenets set in place in order to provide students with equal access to communication and put their interests first. These 7 tenets are:

  • Interpreters respect student autonomy.
  • Interpreters provide access to language and communication in the educational environment at all times.
  • Interpreters maintain the confidentiality of information pertaining to their work.
  • Interpreters support and participate on the educational team.
  • Interpreters continually develop their knowledge, skills, and professionalism to ensure they are qualified for all aspects of their role.
  • Interpreters avoid perceived or actual conflicts of interest.
  • Interpreters engage in ethical professional practices.

Styles & Methods

As with all language combinations, ASL and English are two examples between which interpreting can take place. Interpreting between two different languages and cultures involves mostly the same process regardless of the language pair. Interpreting is a complicated process that involves a number of steps in order to achieve the ultimate goal of providing a communication link between two (or more) people who do not share the same language. The one key difference between spoken language interpreting and sign language interpreting is modality. Spoken language relies on auditory/verbal processes and sign language relies on visual/gestural.

Individual Interpreters

Consecutive vs Simultaneous Interpreting

Consecutive interpreting occurs when a time gap exists between the receipt of the source language to the moment the target language is delivered. This could be measured in seconds or even minutes. Contrast this with translation which may occur over a much longer time frame and involve much deeper processes to accurately provide meaning equivalence in the target language. Consider the translation of religious texts where the source text may have been written hundreds of years before the target text. Simultaneous interpreting on the other hand is considered to be more real-time. Due to the auditory influence of spoken languages consecutive interpreting is often a preferred method of service provision for spoken language interpreters. The Nuremberg trials after World War II was a significant event that changed the nature of spoken language interpreting services. Until then, simultaneous interpreting in a spoken language context was not applied but due to the complexity of the trial and the number of languages and language pairs being used, simultaneous interpreting was successfully implemented on a large and dynamic scale making it a defining moment in spoken language interpreting provision.

In ASL-English interpreting, ASL is, for the most part, silent and therefore does not readily interfere with the reception or production of the spoken language. With one language consuming a different mode, space is created to allow for the reception or production of the spoken language; however, simultaneous interpreting is not always the preferred method and careful attention needs to be applied by the practitioner to the task immediately before them. It is often preferable to consider the simultaneous-consecutive dichotomy as a continuum in which the interpreter possesses the ability to flow between the two extremes.

Teams of interpreters

While the following is a list of interpreting styles, teams of interpreters often are dynamic in their approach. Interpreting styles are not prescriptive; while they can be closely followed, they are also flexible and methodology may depend on the setting. [10]

The "Hot/Cold" seat arrangement

This interpreting arrangement involves an interpreter sitting in front of the Deaf person/ people with another interpreter facing the "working" interpreter. [11] The second interpreter's role is to assist the "working" interpreter via the supplementation of information if needed. It is typical for interpreters in this arrangement to arrange when they will switch roles beforehand so as to ensure smooth transitions between their services. [11]

The modified "Hot/Cold" seat arrangement

This modified technique prompts interpreters to switch every time a different speaker speaks or signs. In a public presentation scenario, for example, one interpreter may interpret what the host of the event is saying and then switch with a partner when a guest speaker presents. [11]  

The "On/Off" seat arrangement

In this arrangement, "working" interpreters work for as long as they have decided each shift will be per interpreter; once they have finished their allotted time, they can have "off" time. [11] This time away from interpreting can involve leaving the room and doing private things such as texting so long as it is unobtrusive. [11] The rationale behind this technique is that interpreters are allowed a mental and physical break in order to ensure high-quality work during their rotation. [11]

The "Deaf-focused" arrangement

To effectively explain this technique, imagine that interpreters have been assigned to assist a Deaf student in a college lecture setting. The "working" interpreter will communicate the topics and subject matter of the lecture whereas the second interpreter will focus more closely on the Deaf individual, working to support them as needed. [11] An example of their role would be to locate information that a lecturer makes reference to in the student's notes as they are kept informed of the speaker's content by the "working" interpreter. In a situation with more than one Deaf student, the secondary interpreter can also work to clarify concepts and answer questions. [11]

The "Double" arrangement

This technique involves two interpreters sitting in front of the Deaf person/ people. [11] This arrangement does not involve switching on and off every set amount of minutes and, instead, the interpreters are assigned to certain people or groups of people. For example, one interpreter may interpret for a lecturer, whereas the other interprets for audience members/ students. [11]

History

In the United States, the Registry of Interpreters for the Deaf (RID) was founded in 1964 for the purpose of systematizing a process for interpreter certification. Six years later the first certification system was in place for practitioners in the field. Federal funding began the support of educational programs throughout the country in the early 1970s. A total of 10 regional centers and 2 national centers sprung up and continued under the US Department of Education funding until 2004 when the number of centers was reduced by half, 5 regional and 1 national.

Before Deaf communities formed, the earliest hearing interpreters were parents, siblings, and associates of signing deaf people; once educational and social networks spread, lay interpreters included those with childhood and professional ties to the Deaf community. [12] By 2009 that number was less than 15%, [13] the vast majority being those who took up the language through interest and study. Interpreters who are themselves Deaf generally appeared only after schools for deaf children were founded, as graduates and bilingual–bicultural products of the communities that developed around them. [14]

Bibliography

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Deaf culture</span> Culture of deaf persons

Deaf culture is the set of social beliefs, behaviors, art, literary traditions, history, values, and shared institutions of communities that are influenced by deafness and which use sign languages as the main means of communication. When used as a cultural label especially within the culture, the word deaf is often written with a capital D and referred to as "big D Deaf" in speech and sign. When used as a label for the audiological condition, it is written with a lower case d. Carl G. Croneberg coined the term "Deaf Culture" and he was the first to discuss analogies between Deaf and hearing cultures in his appendices C/D of the 1965 Dictionary of American Sign Language.

Signing Exact English is a system of manual communication that strives to be an exact representation of English language vocabulary and grammar. It is one of a number of such systems in use in English-speaking countries. It is related to Seeing Essential English (SEE-I), a manual sign system created in 1945, based on the morphemes of English words. SEE-II models much of its sign vocabulary from American Sign Language (ASL), but modifies the handshapes used in ASL in order to use the handshape of the first letter of the corresponding English word.

Interpreting is a translational activity in which one produces a first and final target-language output on the basis of a one-time exposure to an expression in a source language.

The Registry of Interpreters for the Deaf, Inc (RID) is a non-profit organization founded on June 16, 1964, and incorporated in 1972, that seeks to uphold standards, ethics, and professionalism for American Sign Language interpreters. RID is currently a membership organization. The organization grants credentials earned by interpreters who have passed assessments for American Sign Language to English and English to American Sign Language interpretation and maintains their certificates by taking continuing education units. RID provides a Certification Maintenance Program (CMP) to certified members in support of skill-enhancing studies. The organization also provides the Ethical Practices System (EPS) for those who want to file grievances against members of RID. The organization also collaborated with the National Association of the Deaf (NAD) to develop the Code of Professional Conduct (CPC). The CPC Standard Practice Papers (SPP) are also available for professional interpreters to reference. RID is headquartered in Alexandria, Virginia.

Manually Coded English (MCE) is a type of sign system that follows direct spoken English. The different codes of MCE vary in the levels of directness in following spoken English grammar. There may also be a combination with other visual clues, such as body language. MCE is typically used in conjunction with direct spoken English.

Simultaneous communication, SimCom, or sign supported speech (SSS) is a technique sometimes used by deaf, hard-of-hearing or hearing sign language users in which both a spoken language and a manual variant of that language are used simultaneously. While the idea of communicating using two modes of language seems ideal in a hearing/deaf setting, in practice the two languages are rarely relayed perfectly. Often the native language of the user is the language that is strongest, while the non-native language degrades in clarity. In an educational environment this is particularly difficult for deaf children as a majority of teachers who teach the deaf are hearing. Results from surveys taken indicate that communication for students is indeed signing, and that the signing leans more toward English rather than ASL.

Audism as described by deaf activists is a form of discrimination directed against deaf people, which may include those diagnosed as deaf from birth, or otherwise. Tom L. Humphries coined the term in his doctoral dissertation in 1975, but it did not start to catch on until Harlan Lane used it in his writing. Humphries originally applied audism to individual attitudes and practices; whereas Lane broadened the term to include oppression of deaf people.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Video relay service</span> Video telecommunication service

A video relay service (VRS), also sometimes known as a video interpreting service (VIS), is a video telecommunication service that allows deaf, hard-of-hearing, and speech-impaired (D-HOH-SI) individuals to communicate over video telephones and similar technologies with hearing people in real-time, via a sign language interpreter.

Bimodal bilingualism is an individual or community's bilingual competency in at least one oral language and at least one sign language, which utilize two different modalities. An oral language consists of a vocal-aural modality versus a signed language which consists of a visual-spatial modality. A substantial number of bimodal bilinguals are children of deaf adults (CODA) or other hearing people who learn sign language for various reasons. Deaf people as a group have their own sign language(s) and culture that is referred to as Deaf, but invariably live within a larger hearing culture with its own oral language. Thus, "most deaf people are bilingual to some extent in [an oral] language in some form". In discussions of multilingualism in the United States, bimodal bilingualism and bimodal bilinguals have often not been mentioned or even considered. This is in part because American Sign Language, the predominant sign language used in the U.S., only began to be acknowledged as a natural language in the 1960s. However, bimodal bilinguals share many of the same traits as traditional bilinguals, as well as differing in some interesting ways, due to the unique characteristics of the Deaf community. Bimodal bilinguals also experience similar neurological benefits as do unimodal bilinguals, with significantly increased grey matter in various brain areas and evidence of increased plasticity as well as neuroprotective advantages that can help slow or even prevent the onset of age-related cognitive diseases, such as Alzheimer's and dementia.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Video remote interpreting</span>

Video remote interpreting (VRI) is a videotelecommunication service that uses devices such as web cameras or videophones to provide sign language or spoken language interpreting services. This is done through a remote or offsite interpreter, in order to communicate with persons with whom there is a communication barrier. It is similar to a slightly different technology called video relay service, where the parties are each located in different places. VRI is a type of telecommunications relay service (TRS) that is not regulated by the FCC.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Deaf education</span> Education of the deaf and hard of hearing

Deaf education is the education of students with any degree of hearing loss or deafness. This may involve, but does not always, individually-planned, systematically-monitored teaching methods, adaptive materials, accessible settings, and other interventions designed to help students achieve a higher level of self-sufficiency and success in the school and community than they would achieve with a typical classroom education. There are different language modalities used in educational setting where students get varied communication methods. A number of countries focus on training teachers to teach deaf students with a variety of approaches and have organizations to aid deaf students.

The sociolinguistics of sign languages is the application of sociolinguistic principles to the study of sign languages. The study of sociolinguistics in the American Deaf community did not start until the 1960s. Until recently, the study of sign language and sociolinguistics has existed in two separate domains. Nonetheless, now it is clear that many sociolinguistic aspects do not depend on modality and that the combined examination of sociolinguistics and sign language offers countless opportunities to test and understand sociolinguistic theories. The sociolinguistics of sign languages focuses on the study of the relationship between social variables and linguistic variables and their effect on sign languages. The social variables external from language include age, region, social class, ethnicity, and sex. External factors are social by nature and may correlate with the behavior of the linguistic variable. The choices made of internal linguistic variant forms are systematically constrained by a range of factors at both the linguistic and the social levels. The internal variables are linguistic in nature: a sound, a handshape, and a syntactic structure. What makes the sociolinguistics of sign language different from the sociolinguistics of spoken languages is that sign languages have several variables both internal and external to the language that are unique to the Deaf community. Such variables include the audiological status of a signer's parents, age of acquisition, and educational background. There exist perceptions of socioeconomic status and variation of "grassroots" deaf people and middle-class deaf professionals, but this has not been studied in a systematic way. "The sociolinguistic reality of these perceptions has yet to be explored". Many variations in dialects correspond or reflect the values of particular identities of a community.

Assistive Technology for the Deaf and Hard of Hearing is technology built to assist those who are deaf or suffer from hearing loss. Examples of such technology include hearing aids, video relay services, tactile devices, alerting devices and technology for supporting communication.

Language deprivation in deaf and hard-of-hearing children is a delay in language development that occurs when sufficient exposure to language, spoken or signed, is not provided in the first few years of a deaf or hard of hearing child's life, often called the critical or sensitive period. Early intervention, parental involvement, and other resources all work to prevent language deprivation. Children who experience limited access to language—spoken or signed—may not develop the necessary skills to successfully assimilate into the academic learning environment. There are various educational approaches for teaching deaf and hard of hearing individuals. Decisions about language instruction is dependent upon a number of factors including extent of hearing loss, availability of programs, and family dynamics.

Deaf mental health care is the providing of counseling, therapy, and other psychiatric services to people who are deaf and hard of hearing in ways that are culturally aware and linguistically accessible. This term also covers research, training, and services in ways that improve mental health for deaf people. These services consider those with a variety of hearing levels and experiences with deafness focusing on their psychological well-being. The National Association of the Deaf has identified that specialized services and knowledge of the Deaf increases successful mental health services to this population. States such as North Carolina, South Carolina, and Alabama have specialized Deaf mental health services. The Alabama Department of Mental Health has established an office of Deaf services to serve the more than 39,000 deaf and hard of hearing person who will require mental health services.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Social impact of profound hearing loss</span>

People with extreme hearing loss may communicate through sign languages. Sign languages convey meaning through manual communication and body language instead of acoustically conveyed sound patterns. This involves the simultaneous combination of hand shapes, orientation and movement of the hands, arms or body, and facial expressions to express a speaker's thoughts. "Sign languages are based on the idea that vision is the most useful tool a deaf person has to communicate and receive information".

Protactile is a language used by deafblind people using tactile channels. Unlike other sign languages, which are heavily reliant on visual information, protactile is oriented towards touch and is practiced on the body. Protactile communication originated out of communications by DeafBlind people in Seattle in 2007 and incorporates signs from American Sign Language. Protactile is an emerging system of communication in the United States, with users relying on shared principles such as contact space, tactile imagery, and reciprocity.

In Ireland, 8% of adults are affected by deafness or severe hearing loss. In other words, 300,000 Irish require supports due to their hearing loss.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Deafness in the Windward Islands</span>

The Windward Islands are a group of islands in the Caribbean Sea that include Dominica, Martinique, Barbados, Saint Lucia, Saint Vincent and the Grenadines, Trinidad and Tobago, and Grenada. A variety of cultures, beliefs, languages, and views of deafness exist on the islands.

There is limited information on the extent of Deafness in Haiti, due mainly to the lack of census data. Haiti's poor infrastructure makes it almost impossible to obtain accurate information on many health related issues, not just the hearing impaired. In 2003, the number of deaf people in Haiti was estimated at 72,000, based on a survey provided by the World Health Organization.

References

  1. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 "ADA Requirements - Effective Communication". ADA.gov. 2023-02-17. Retrieved 2023-02-24.
  2. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 "Best Practices in Access: Hiring Qualified Interpreters". National Deaf Center. Retrieved 2023-02-24.
  3. ↑ Marschark, Marc Peterson; Winston, Elizabeth (2005). Sign Language Interpreting and Interpreter Education: Directions for Research and Practice. Oxford University Press. ISBN   978-0-19-517694-0. OCLC   895782608.
  4. ↑ "Interpreting American Sign Language". National Association of the Deaf.
  5. ↑ Liddell, Scott K. (2003-03-13). Grammar, Gesture, and Meaning in American Sign Language. Cambridge University Press. doi:10.1017/cbo9780511615054. ISBN   978-0-521-81620-5.
  6. ↑ McKee, Rachel Locker; McKee, David (1992). "What's So Hard About Learning ASL?: Students' & Teachers' Perceptions". Sign Language Studies. 75 (1): 129–157. doi:10.1353/sls.1992.0000. ISSN   1533-6263. S2CID   144891718.
  7. ↑ Ball, Carolyn (2007). The History of American Sign Language Interpreting Education. Interpreting Consolidated.
  8. ↑ "Search: Interpreter Education Program". RID. Retrieved 3 January 2024.
  9. ↑ "Code of Ethics". NAIE. Retrieved 2023-03-17.
  10. ↑ Holcomb, Thomas K.; Smith, David H. (2018). Deaf eyes on interpreting. Washington, D.C. ISBN   978-1-944838-28-7. OCLC   1041667114.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)
  11. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 Holcomb, Thomas K.; Mindess, Anna, A Sign of Respect Unit 3, Treehouse Video
  12. ↑ Leahy, Anne (2021). "Chapter 12: Historical Mis-Interpretation of Signed Language Interpreting". In Rundle, Chris (ed.). Routledge Handbook of Interpreter History. Routledge. pp. 189–203.
  13. ↑ Winston, E.; Cokely, D. (2009). International perspectives on sign language interpreter education. Jemina Napier. Washington, DC: Gallaudet University Press. ISBN   978-1-56368-458-6. OCLC   794700890.
  14. ↑ Leahy, Anne (Aug 2014). First Deaf Interpreters in U.S. Courts. MARIE Center Institute for Legal Interpreting.
  15. ↑ "ADA Quick Tips - Sign Language Interpreters | ADA National Network". adata.org. Retrieved 2023-02-24.
  16. ↑ ASL Interpreting 101 for Hearing People | Andrew Tolman & Lauren Tolo | TEDxBend , retrieved 2023-02-24
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