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Colonialism is the pursuing, establishing and maintaining of control and exploitation of people and of resources by a foreign group. Colonizers monopolize political power and hold conquered societies and their people to be inferior to their conquerors in legal, administrative, social, cultural, or biological terms. While frequently advanced as an imperialist regime, colonialism can also take the form of settler colonialism, whereby colonial settlers invade and occupy territory to permanently replace an existing society with that of the colonizers, possibly towards a genocide of native populations.
Imperialism is the practice, theory or attitude of maintaining or extending power over foreign nations, particularly through expansionism, employing both hard power and soft power. Imperialism focuses on establishing or maintaining hegemony and a more or less formal empire. While related to the concepts of colonialism, imperialism is a distinct concept that can apply to other forms of expansion and many forms of government.
Decolonization is the undoing of colonialism, the latter being the process whereby imperial nations establish and dominate foreign territories, often overseas. The meanings and applications of the term are disputed. Some scholars of decolonization focus especially on independence movements in the colonies and the collapse of global colonial empires.
A colonial mentality is an internalized ethnic, linguistic, or cultural inferiority complex felt by people as a result of colonization, i.e. being colonized by another people and gaslit into assimilation based on the belief that the language and culture of the colonizer are inherently superior to one's own. The term has been used by postcolonial scholars to discuss the transgenerational effects of colonialism present in former colonies following decolonization. It is commonly used as an operational concept for framing ideological domination in historical colonial experiences. In psychology, colonial mentality has been used to explain instances of collective depression, anxiety, and other widespread mental health issues in populations that have experienced colonization.
James Heartfield is a British lecturer and historian.
Indirect rule was a system of governance used by imperial powers to control parts of their empires. This was particularly used by colonial empires like the British Empire to control their possessions in Africa and Asia, which was done through pre-existing indigenous power structures. Indirect rule was used by various colonial rulers such as: the French in Algeria and Tunisia, the Dutch in the East Indies, the Portuguese in Angola and Mozambique and the Belgians in Rwanda and Burundi. These dependencies were often called "protectorates" or "trucial states".
The Congo Reform Association (CRA) was a political and humanitarian activist group that sought to promote reform of the Congo Free State, a private territory in Central Africa under the absolute sovereignty of King Leopold II. Active from 1904 to 1913, the association formed in opposition to the institutionalised practices of Congo Free State's 'rubber policy', which encouraged the need to minimise expenditure and maximise profit with no political constraints – fostering a system of coercion and terror unparalleled in contemporary colonial Africa. The group carried out a global publicity campaign across the Western world, using a range of strategies including displays of atrocity photographs; public seminars; mass rallies; celebrity endorsements; and extensive press coverage to lobby the Great Powers into pressuring reform in the Congo. The association partially achieved its aims in 1908 with the Belgian government's annexation of the Congo Free State and continued to promote reform until disbanding in 1913.
The civilizing mission is a political rationale for military intervention and for colonization purporting to facilitate the Westernization of indigenous peoples, especially in the period from the 15th to the 20th centuries. As a principle of Western culture, the term was most prominently used in justifying French colonialism in the late-15th to mid-20th centuries. The civilizing mission was the cultural justification for the colonization of French Algeria, French West Africa, French Indochina, Portuguese Angola and Portuguese Guinea, Portuguese Mozambique and Portuguese Timor, among other colonies. The civilizing mission also was a popular justification for the British and German colonialism. In the Russian Empire, it was also associated with the Russian conquest of Central Asia and the Russification of that region. The Western colonial powers claimed that, as Christian nations, they were duty bound to disseminate Western civilization to what they perceived as heathen, primitive cultures. It was also applied by the Empire of Japan, which colonized Korea.
Western European colonialism and colonization was the Western European policy or practice of acquiring full or partial political control over other societies and territories, founding a colony, occupying it with settlers, and exploiting it economically. For example, colonial policies, such as the type of rule implemented, the nature of investments, and identity of the colonizers, are cited as impacting postcolonial states. Examination of the state-building process, economic development, and cultural norms and mores shows the direct and indirect consequences of colonialism on the postcolonial states.
The historical phenomenon of colonization is one that stretches around the globe and across time. Ancient and medieval colonialism was practiced by the Phoenicians, Greeks, Romans, Turks, Han Chinese, and Arabs.
William Thomas represented Aboriginal people in various roles in the Port Phillip district in Australia.
Dja Dja Wurrung, also known as the Djaara or Jajowrong people and Loddon River tribe, are an Aboriginal Australian people who are the traditional owners of lands including the water catchment areas of the Loddon and Avoca rivers in the Bendigo region of central Victoria, Australia. They are part of the Kulin alliance of Aboriginal Victorian peoples. There are 16 clans, which adhere to a patrilineal system. Like other Kulin peoples, there are two moieties: Bunjil the eagle and Waa the crow.
Postcolonialism is the critical academic study of the cultural, political and economic legacy of colonialism and imperialism, focusing on the impact of human control and exploitation of colonized people and their lands. The field started to emerge in the 1960s, as scholars from previously colonized countries began publishing on the lingering effects of colonialism, developing a critical theory analysis of the history, culture, literature, and discourse of imperial power.
The Aborigines' Protection Society (APS) was an international human rights organisation founded in 1837, to ensure the health and well-being and the sovereign, legal and religious rights of the indigenous peoples while also promoting the civilisation of the indigenous people who were subjected under colonial powers, in particular the British Empire. In 1909 it merged with the British and Foreign Anti-Slavery Society (BFASS) to form the Anti-Slavery and Aborigines' Protection Society.
The historiography of the British Empire refers to the studies, sources, critical methods and interpretations used by scholars to develop a history of the British Empire. Historians and their ideas are the main focus here; specific lands and historical dates and episodes are covered in the article on the British Empire. Scholars have long studied the Empire, looking at the causes for its formation, its relations to the French and other empires, and the kinds of people who became imperialists or anti-imperialists, together with their mindsets. The history of the breakdown of the Empire has attracted scholars of the histories of the United States, the British Raj, and the African colonies. John Darwin (2013) identifies four imperial goals: colonising, civilising, converting, and commerce.
Christianity and colonialism are often closely associated with each other due to the service of Christianity, in its various sects, as the state religion of the historical European colonial powers, in which Christians likewise made up the majority. Through a variety of methods, Christian missionaries acted as the "religious arms" of the imperialist powers of Europe. According to Edward E. Andrews, Associate Professor of Providence College Christian missionaries were initially portrayed as "visible saints, exemplars of ideal piety in a sea of persistent savagery". However, by the time the colonial era drew to a close in the later half of the 20th century, missionaries were viewed as "ideological shock troops for colonial invasion whose zealotry blinded them", colonialism's "agent, scribe and moral alibi".
Settler colonialism occurs when colonizers and settlers invade and occupy territory to permanently replace the existing society with the society of the colonizers.
The imperial boomerang or Foucault's boomerang is the thesis that governments that develop repressive techniques to control colonial territories will eventually deploy those same techniques domestically against their own citizens.
The Parliamentary Select Committee on Aboriginal Tribes, or the Aborigines Select Committee, was a select committee of the Parliament of the United Kingdom.
Zionism has been described as a form of settler colonialism in relation to the region of Palestine and the Israeli–Palestinian conflict. Many of the fathers of Zionism themselves described it as colonialism, such as Vladimir Jabotinsky, who said "Zionism is a colonization adventure."
References
- ↑ profiles.sussex.ac.uk https://profiles.sussex.ac.uk/p114412-alan-lester . Retrieved 15 June 2023.
{{cite web}}: Missing or empty|title=(help) - ↑ "Alan Lester". Alan Lester. Retrieved 2023-06-16.
- ↑ Howe, Stephen, ed. (2020-07-24). The New Imperial Histories Reader. doi:10.4324/9781003060871. ISBN 9781003060871. S2CID 160751035.
- ↑ Lester, Alan (2023). Deny and Disavow: Distancing the Imperial Past in the Culture Wars (2nd ed.). London: SunRise Publishing Limited. ISBN 978-1-9144891-4-3.
- ↑ Lester, Alan (2023-06-02). "The British Empire in the Culture War: Nigel Biggar's Colonialism: A Moral Reckoning". The Journal of Imperial and Commonwealth History. 51 (4): 763–795. doi: 10.1080/03086534.2023.2209947 . ISSN 0308-6534. S2CID 259061156.
- ↑ Clayton, Daniel (2003). "Reviews: Imperial Networks: Creating Identities in Nineteenth-Century South Africa and Britain". Environment and Planning A: Economy and Space. 35 (1): 189–190. Bibcode:2003EnPlA..35..189C. doi:10.1068/a3501rvw. ISSN 0308-518X. S2CID 157397798.
- ↑ Keegan, Timothy (2002). "COMPETING COLONIAL DISCOURSES Imperial Networks : Creating Identities in Nineteenth-Century South Africa and Britain. By A LAN L ESTER . London and New York: Routledge, 2001. Pp. xii+257. £55; $90 ( ISBN 0-415-19850-X); £16.99; $27.95, paperback ( ISBN 0-415-25914-2)". The Journal of African History. 43 (2): 313–376. doi:10.1017/S0021853702388297. S2CID 162537782.
- ↑ Potter, Simon J. (2007). "Webs, Networks, and Systems: Globalization and the Mass Media in the Nineteenth- and Twentieth-Century British Empire". Journal of British Studies. 46 (3): 621–646. doi:10.1086/515446. S2CID 145304674.
- ↑ Anderson, Peter (2004). "Review of Imperial Networks: Creating Identities in Nineteenth-Century South Africa and Britain". Kronos (30): 247–249. ISSN 0259-0190. JSTOR 41056527.
- ↑ McHugh, P.G. (2016). "Colonization and the Origins of Humanitarian Governance: Protecting Aborigines across the Nineteenth-Century British Empire, by Alan Lester and Fae Dussart". The English Historical Review. 131 (553): 1544–1546. doi:10.1093/ehr/cew337.
- ↑ Exeter, CIGH (4 November 2015). "Colonization and the Origins of Humanitarian Governance". Imperial & Global Forum. Retrieved 15 June 2023.
- ↑ Forth, Aidan (2016). "Review of Colonization and the Origins of Humanitarian Governance: Protecting Aborigines across the Nineteenth-Century British Empire". Victorian Studies. 58 (4): 756–758. doi:10.2979/victorianstudies.58.4.23. ISSN 0042-5222. JSTOR 10.2979/victorianstudies.58.4.23.
- ↑ Exeter, CIGH (12 July 2022). "Hanley on Lester's Deny & Disavow: Distancing the Imperial Past in the Culture Wars (2022)". Imperial & Global Forum. Retrieved 15 June 2023.
