Brushaber v. Union Pacific Railroad Co., 240 U.S. 1 (1916), was a landmark United States Supreme Court case in which the Court upheld the validity of a tax statute called the Revenue Act of 1913, also known as the Tariff Act, Ch. 16, 38 Stat. 166, enacted pursuant to Article I, section 8, clause 1 of, and the Sixteenth Amendment to, the United States Constitution, allowing a federal income tax. The Sixteenth Amendment had been ratified earlier in 1913. The Revenue Act of 1913 imposed income taxes that were not apportioned among the states according to each state's population.
The D'Hondt method, also called the Jefferson method or the greatest divisors method, is a method for allocating seats in parliaments among federal states, or in party-list proportional representation systems. It belongs to the class of highest-averages methods.
The Webster method, also called the Sainte-Laguë method or the major fractions method, is a method for allocating seats in a parliament among federal states, or among parties in a party-list proportional representation system.
A highest-averages method, also called a divisor method, is a class of methods for allocating seats in a parliament among agents such as political parties or federal states. A divisor method is an iterative method: at each iteration, the number of votes of each party is divided by its divisor, which is a function of the number of seats currently allocated to that party. The next seat is allocated to the party whose resulting ratio is largest.
The largest remainder method is one way of allocating seats proportionally for representative assemblies with party list voting systems. It contrasts with various highest averages methods.
United States congressional apportionment is the process by which seats in the United States House of Representatives are distributed among the 50 states according to the most recent decennial census mandated by the United States Constitution. Each state is apportioned a number of seats which approximately corresponds to its share of the aggregate population of the 50 states. Every state is constitutionally guaranteed at least one seat.
An apportionment paradox exists when the rules for apportionment in a political system produce results which are unexpected or seem to violate common sense.
Redistricting in the United States is the process of drawing electoral district boundaries. The Uniform Congressional District Act requires that representatives be elected from single-member districts. When a state has a single representative, that district will be state-wide. Redistricting has become subject to contentious political debate in recent years with critics arguing that it has been weaponized to neutralize minority voting power. Supporters say it enhances electoral competitiveness.
The apportionment of seats within the European Parliament to each member state of the European Union is set out by the EU treaties. According to European Union treaties, the distribution of seats is "degressively proportional" to the population of the member states, with negotiations and agreements between member states playing a role. Thus the allocation of seats is not strictly proportional to the size of a state's population, nor does it reflect any other automatically triggered or fixed mathematical formula. The process can be compared to the composition of the electoral college used to elect the President of the United States of America in that, pro rata, the smaller state received more places in the electoral college than the more populous states.
A national curriculum is a common programme of study in schools that is designed to ensure nationwide uniformity of content and standards in education. It is usually legislated by the national government, possibly in consultation with state or other regional authorities.
Congressional districts, also known as electoral districts, legislative districts, wards, and electorates in other nations, are divisions of a larger administrative region that represent the population of a region in the larger congressional body. Notably, in Australia, electoral districts are referred to as "electorates" or "seats"; in Canada, these are called "constituencies", or, more informally, "ridings". Countries with congressional districts include the United States, the Philippines, and Japan.
Members of the European Parliament (MEPs) are elected by the population of the member states of the European Union (EU). The European Electoral Act 2002 allows member states the choice to allocate electoral subdivisions or constituencies for the European Parliament elections in several different ways.
The Reapportionment Act of 1929, also known as the Permanent Apportionment Act of 1929, is a combined census and apportionment bill enacted on June 18, 1929, that establishes a permanent method for apportioning a constant 435 seats in the U.S. House of Representatives according to each census.
Biproportional apportionment is a proportional representation method to allocate seats in proportion to two separate characteristics. That is, for two different partitions each part receives the proportional number of seats within the total number of seats. For instance, this method could give proportional results by party and by region, or by party and by gender/ethnicity, or by any other pair of characteristics.
- Example: proportional by party and by region
- Then, as nearly as possible given the totals for each region and each party:
In mathematics and political science, the quota rule describes a desired property of a proportional apportionment or election method. It states that the number of seats that should be allocated to a given party should be between the upper or lower roundings of its fractional proportional share. As an example, if a party deserves 10.56 seats out of 15, the quota rule states that when the seats are allotted, the party may get 10 or 11 seats, but not lower or higher. Many common election methods, such as all highest averages methods, violate the quota rule.
The Uniform Fiduciary Income and Principal Act (UFIPA) is one of the uniform acts that have been proposed in an attempt to harmonize the law in all fifty U.S. states. UFIPA was finalized and adopted by the Uniform Law Commission (ULC) in 2018.
Mathematics of apportionment describes mathematical principles and algorithms for fair allocation of identical items among parties with different entitlements. Such principles are used to apportion seats in parliaments among federal states or political parties. See apportionment (politics) for the more concrete principles and issues related to apportionment, and apportionment by country for practical methods used around the world.
House monotonicity is a property of apportionment methods and multiwinner voting systems. These are methods for allocating seats in a parliament among federal states. The property says that, if the number of seats in the "house" increases, and the method is re-activated, then no state should have less seats than it previously had. A method that fails to satisfy house-monotonicity is said to have the Alabama paradox.
Coherence, also called uniformity or consistency, is a criterion for evaluating rules for fair division. Coherence requires that the outcome of a fairness rule is fair not only for the overall problem, but also for each sub-problem. Every part of a fair division should be fair.
Vote-ratio monotonicity (VRM) is a property of apportionment methods, which are methods of allocating seats in a parliament among political parties. The property says that, if the ratio between the number of votes won by party A to the number of votes won by party B increases, then it should NOT happen that party A loses a seat while party B gains a seat.
