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Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) is a neurodevelopmental disorder characterized by executive dysfunction occasioning symptoms of inattention,hyperactivity,impulsivity and emotional dysregulation that are excessive and pervasive,impairing in multiple contexts,and developmentally-inappropriate.
Atomoxetine,formerly sold under the brand name Strattera,is a selective norepinephrine reuptake inhibitor (sNRI) medication used to treat attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) and,to a lesser extent,cognitive disengagement syndrome (CDS). It may be used alone or along with stimulant medication. It enhances the executive functions of self-motivation,sustained attention,inhibition,working memory,reaction time,and emotional self-regulation. Use of atomoxetine is only recommended for those who are at least six years old. It is taken orally. The effectiveness of atomoxetine is comparable to the commonly prescribed stimulant medication methylphenidate.
Adult Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder is the persistence of attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) into adulthood. It is a neurodevelopmental disorder,meaning impairing symptoms must have been present in childhood,except for when ADHD occurs after traumatic brain injury. Specifically,multiple symptoms must be present before the age of 12,according to DSM-5 diagnostic criteria. The cutoff age of 12 is a change from the previous requirement of symptom onset,which was before the age of 7 in the DSM-IV. This was done to add flexibility in the diagnosis of adults. ADHD was previously thought to be a childhood disorder that improved with age,but recent research has disproved this. Approximately two-thirds of childhood cases of ADHD continue into adulthood,with varying degrees of symptom severity that change over time and continue to affect individuals with symptoms ranging from minor inconveniences to impairments in daily functioning.
Child psychopathology refers to the scientific study of mental disorders in children and adolescents. Oppositional defiant disorder,attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder,and autism spectrum disorder are examples of psychopathology that are typically first diagnosed during childhood. Mental health providers who work with children and adolescents are informed by research in developmental psychology,clinical child psychology,and family systems. Lists of child and adult mental disorders can be found in the International Statistical Classification of Diseases and Related Health Problems,10th Edition (ICD-10),published by the World Health Organization (WHO) and in the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders,Fifth Edition (DSM-5),published by the American Psychiatric Association (APA). In addition,the Diagnostic Classification of Mental Health and Developmental Disorders of Infancy and Early Childhood is used in assessing mental health and developmental disorders in children up to age five.
Cognitive disengagement syndrome (CDS) is a syndrome characterized by developmentally inappropriate,impairing,and persistent levels of decoupled attentional processing from the ongoing external context and resultant hypoactivity. Symptoms often manifest in difficulties with staring,mind blanking,absent-mindedness,mental confusion and maladaptive mind-wandering alongside delayed,sedentary or slow motor movements. To scientists in the field,it has reached the threshold of evidence and recognition as a distinct syndrome.
Oppositional defiant disorder (ODD) is listed in the DSM-5 under Disruptive,impulse-control,and conduct disorders and defined as "a pattern of angry/irritable mood,argumentative/defiant behavior,or vindictiveness." This behavior is usually targeted toward peers,parents,teachers,and other authority figures,including law enforcement officials. Unlike conduct disorder (CD),those with ODD do not generally show patterns of aggression towards random people,violence against animals,destruction of property,theft,or deceit. One-half of children with ODD also fulfill the diagnostic criteria for ADHD.
Russell Alan BarkleyFAPA is a retired American clinical neuropsychologist who was a clinical professor of psychiatry at the VCU Medical Center until 2022 and president of Division 12 of the American Psychological Association (APA) and of the International Society for Research in Child and Adolescent Psychopathology. Involved in research since 1973 and a licensed psychologist since 1977,he is an expert on attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) and has devoted much of his scientific career to studying ADHD and related fields like childhood defiance. He proposed the renaming of sluggish cognitive tempo (SCT) to cognitive disengagement syndrome (CDS).
Despite the scientifically well-established nature of attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD),its diagnosis,and its treatment,each of these has been controversial since the 1970s. The controversies involve clinicians,teachers,policymakers,parents,and the media. Positions range from the view that ADHD is within the normal range of behavior to the hypothesis that ADHD is a genetic condition. Other areas of controversy include the use of stimulant medications in children,the method of diagnosis,and the possibility of overdiagnosis. In 2009,the National Institute for Health and Care Excellence,while acknowledging the controversy,stated that the current treatments and methods of diagnosis are based on the dominant view of the academic literature.
Bipolar disorder in children,or pediatric bipolar disorder (PBD),is a rare mental disorder in children and adolescents. The diagnosis of bipolar disorder in children has been heavily debated for many reasons including the potential harmful effects of adult bipolar medication use for children. PBD is similar to bipolar disorder (BD) in adults,and has been proposed as an explanation for periods of extreme shifts in mood called mood episodes. These shifts alternate between periods of depressed or irritable moods and periods of abnormally elevated moods called manic or hypomanic episodes. Mixed mood episodes can occur when a child or adolescent with PBD experiences depressive and manic symptoms simultaneously. Mood episodes of children and adolescents with PBD are different from general shifts in mood experienced by children and adolescents because mood episodes last for long periods of time and cause severe disruptions to an individual's life. There are three known forms of PBD:Bipolar I,Bipolar II,and Bipolar Not Otherwise Specified (NOS). The average age of onset of PBD remains unclear,but reported age of onset ranges from 5 years of age to 19 years of age. PBD is typically more severe and has a poorer prognosis than bipolar disorder with onset in late-adolescence or adulthood.
Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder management options are evidence-based practices with established treatment efficacy for ADHD. Approaches that have been evaluated in the management of ADHD symptoms include FDA-approved pharmacologic treatment and other pharmaceutical agents,psychological or behavioral approaches,combined pharmacological and behavioral approaches,cognitive training,neurofeedback,neurostimulation,physical exercise,nutrition and supplements,integrative medicine,parent support,and school interventions. Based on two 2024 systematic reviews of the literature,FDA-approved medications and to a lesser extent psychosocial interventions have been shown to improve core ADHD symptoms compared to control groups.
Child and adolescent psychiatry is a branch of psychiatry that focuses on the diagnosis,treatment,and prevention of mental disorders in children,adolescents,and their families. It investigates the biopsychosocial factors that influence the development and course of psychiatric disorders and treatment responses to various interventions. Child and adolescent psychiatrists primarily use psychotherapy and/or medication to treat mental disorders in the pediatric population.
A residential treatment center (RTC),sometimes called a rehab,is a live-in health care facility providing therapy for substance use disorders,mental illness,or other behavioral problems. Residential treatment may be considered the "last-ditch" approach to treating abnormal psychology or psychopathology.
Parent management training (PMT),also known as behavioral parent training (BPT) or simply parent training,is a family of treatment programs that aims to change parenting behaviors,teaching parents positive reinforcement methods for improving pre-school and school-age children's behavior problems.
Joseph Biederman was an American academic psychiatrist. He was Chief of the Clinical and Research Programs in Pediatric Psychopharmacology and Adult ADHD at the Massachusetts General Hospital and a professor of psychiatry at Harvard Medical School.
The Disruptive Behavior Disorders Rating Scale (DBDRS) is a 45-question screening measure,completed by either parents or teachers,designed to identify symptoms of attention deficit hyperactivity disorder,oppositional defiant disorder,and conduct disorder in children and adolescents.
The Child Mania Rating Scales (CMRS) is a 21-item diagnostic screening measure designed to identify symptoms of mania in children and adolescents aged 9–17 using diagnostic criteria from the DSM-IV,developed by Pavuluri and colleagues. There is also a 10-item short form. The measure assesses the child's mood and behavior symptoms,asking parents or teachers to rate how often the symptoms have caused a problem for the youth in the past month. Clinical studies have found the CMRS to be reliable and valid when completed by parents in the assessment of children's bipolar symptoms. The CMRS also can differentiate cases of pediatric bipolar disorder from those with ADHD or no disorder,as well as delineating bipolar subtypes. A meta-analysis comparing the different rating scales available found that the CMRS was one of the best performing scales in terms of telling cases with bipolar disorder apart from other clinical diagnoses. The CMRS has also been found to provide a reliable and valid assessment of symptoms longitudinally over the course of treatment. The combination of showing good reliability and validity across multiple samples and clinical settings,along with being free and brief to score,make the CMRS a promising tool,especially since most other checklists available for youths do not assess manic symptoms.
Judy Garber is a clinical psychologist known for her research on emotional dysregulation and mood disorders,with a focus on cognitive-behavioral interventions for adolescents who have depression. Garber is Cornelius Vanderbilt Professor of Psychology and Human Development at Vanderbilt University.
Jean Harvey,PhD,RDN,is currently the Robert L. Bickford,Jr. Endowed Professor,the Associate Dean for Research,and the Chair of the Department of Nutrition and Food Science in the College of Agriculture and Life Sciences at the University of Vermont. Her specialty is behavioral weight management with a specific focus on technology-based programs.
The relationships between digital media use and mental health have been investigated by various researchers—predominantly psychologists,sociologists,anthropologists,and medical experts—especially since the mid-1990s,after the growth of the World Wide Web and rise of text messaging. A significant body of research has explored "overuse" phenomena,commonly known as "digital addictions",or "digital dependencies". These phenomena manifest differently in many societies and cultures. Some experts have investigated the benefits of moderate digital media use in various domains,including mental health,and treating mental health problems with novel technological solutions. Studies have also suggested that certain digital media use,such as online support communities,may offer mental health benefits,although the effects are quite complex.
Tanya Elizabeth Froehlich is an American pediatrician. She is an associate professor of developmental and behavioral pediatrics at the University of Cincinnati and Cincinnati Children's Hospital Medical Center. Froehlich's research focus is to help doctors properly prescribe ADHD medication for children and focus on how marginalized and disadvantaged youth deal with ADHD compared to their wealthier companions.
References
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- ↑ Kaiser, Nina M.; Hoza, Betsy; Pelham Jr., William E.; Gnagy, Elizabeth; Greiner, Andrew R. (2008). "ADHD status and degree of positive illusions: moderational and mediational relations with actual behavior". Journal of Attention Disorders . 12 (3): 227–238. doi:10.1177/1087054707311661. PMID 19048655 . Retrieved July 15, 2020.
- ↑ Hoza, Betsy (October 2013). "Does Childhood Positive Self-Perceptual Bias Mediate Adolescent Risky Behavior in Youth from the MTA Study?". Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology . 81 (5): 846–858. doi:10.1037/a0033536. PMC 3961063 . PMID 23834228.
- ↑ Gnaulati, Enrico (September 17, 2013). "ADHD, or Childhood Narcissism?". theatlantic.com. The Atlantic . Retrieved July 15, 2020.
- ↑ "Professors Hoza and Landry Named University Scholars". cas.com. April 24, 2013. Retrieved July 15, 2020.
- ↑ "Betsy Hoza Appointed Bishop Joyce Chair in Human Development". uvm.edu. March 21, 2014. Retrieved July 15, 2020.
- ↑ "Students Implement Prof's Research-Based 'Fit Kids' Program". uvm.edu. April 28, 2016. Retrieved July 15, 2020.
- ↑ "Exercise before school may reduce ADHD symptoms in kids". sciencedaily.com. September 9, 2014. Retrieved July 15, 2020.
