Charles A. Spencer was an American scientific pioneer and inventor, [1] who is widely believed to have developed the first American-made achromatic objective microscope. [2] [3] [4] [5] He was born in 1813 in Madison County, NY [1] and died in 1881. [6]
Spencer’s first microscopes were available for purchase in 1838. [2] Previous to Spencer’s invention, European manufacturers held a monopoly on research-quality microscopic equipment. [3] At least one of Spencer’s microscopes survives and is currently held by the Smithsonian Institution. [3]
In 1854, Spencer formed a partnership with A.K. Eaton for the manufacture of high quality microscopes, which was located in Canastota, NY, USA. [6] This partnership would prove successful, with back-orders from all over the world reportedly exceeding $20,000 US in the currency of the day. [1]
A “crippling” fire in 1873 however, would lead to the failure and dissolution of this original partnership. Following a move to Geneva, NY, and a brief partnership with Geneva Optical Works, a new business was founded that included Spencer's sons in 1877 called “Charles A. Spencer & Sons.” [6]
Despite not seeking recognition for their work in the trade, in 1878 the Spencer's microscopes would receive the Paris Universal Exposition Exposition Universelle (1878) highest award, the Grand Gold Medal, for excellence in their optics. [5]
In 1884, ground was broken in Rochester, NY for the foundation of a monument to Spencer and his peer, Robert B. Tolles to provide an enduring honor of their achievements in American microscopy, and the scientific advances that grew from it. [7]
A memorial fund was also established as an endowment, which would grant "not more than $100" each year, to be used for research purposes by the recipient. [8]
In 1895, Herbert R. Spencer continued his father's work with the establishment of the Spencer Lens Company, based in Buffalo, NY. The company was later purchased by the American Optical Company. [9] [10] In 1967, Warner Lambert Pharmaceutical acquired the company [11] which, after changing hands several times, ultimately came to be known as Reichert Technologies, Inc. [12] In 2011, the company became a part of AMETEK. [13]
Microscopy is the technical field of using microscopes to view objects and areas of objects that cannot be seen with the naked eye. There are three well-known branches of microscopy: optical, electron, and scanning probe microscopy, along with the emerging field of X-ray microscopy.
A microscope is a laboratory instrument used to examine objects that are too small to be seen by the naked eye. Microscopy is the science of investigating small objects and structures using a microscope. Microscopic means being invisible to the eye unless aided by a microscope.
Antonie Philips van Leeuwenhoek was a Dutch microbiologist and microscopist in the Golden Age of Dutch science and technology. A largely self-taught man in science, he is commonly known as "the Father of Microbiology", and one of the first microscopists and microbiologists. Van Leeuwenhoek is best known for his pioneering work in microscopy and for his contributions toward the establishment of microbiology as a scientific discipline.
The optical microscope, also referred to as a light microscope, is a type of microscope that commonly uses visible light and a system of lenses to generate magnified images of small objects. Optical microscopes are the oldest design of microscope and were possibly invented in their present compound form in the 17th century. Basic optical microscopes can be very simple, although many complex designs aim to improve resolution and sample contrast.
The microscopic scale is the scale of objects and events smaller than those that can easily be seen by the naked eye, requiring a lens or microscope to see them clearly. In physics, the microscopic scale is sometimes regarded as the scale between the macroscopic scale and the quantum scale. Microscopic units and measurements are used to classify and describe very small objects. One common microscopic length scale unit is the micrometre, which is one millionth of a metre.
Ernst Karl Abbe was a German physicist, optical scientist, entrepreneur, and social reformer. Together with Otto Schott and Carl Zeiss, he developed numerous optical instruments. He was also a co-owner of Carl Zeiss AG, a German manufacturer of scientific microscopes, astronomical telescopes, planetariums, and other advanced optical systems.
Joseph Jackson Lister FRS FRMS was a British opticist and physicist best known for being the father of the 1st Baron Lister.
Dark-field microscopy describes microscopy methods, in both light and electron microscopy, which exclude the unscattered beam from the image. As a result, the field around the specimen is generally dark.
Bright-field microscopy (BF) is the simplest of all the optical microscopy illumination techniques. Sample illumination is transmitted white light, and contrast in the sample is caused by attenuation of the transmitted light in dense areas of the sample. Bright-field microscopy is the simplest of a range of techniques used for illumination of samples in light microscopes, and its simplicity makes it a popular technique. The typical appearance of a bright-field microscopy image is a dark sample on a bright background, hence the name.
August Karl Johann Valentin Köhler was a German professor and early staff member of Carl Zeiss AG in Jena, Germany. He is best known for his development of the microscopy technique of Köhler illumination, an important principle in optimizing microscopic resolution power by evenly illuminating the field of view. This invention revolutionized light microscope design and is widely used in traditional as well as modern digital imaging techniques today.
Köhler illumination is a method of specimen illumination used for transmitted and reflected light optical microscopy. Köhler illumination acts to generate an even illumination of the sample and ensures that an image of the illumination source is not visible in the resulting image. Köhler illumination is the predominant technique for sample illumination in modern scientific light microscopy. It requires additional optical elements which are more expensive and may not be present in more basic light microscopes.
The Royal Microscopical Society (RMS) is a learned society for the promotion of microscopy. It was founded in 1839 as the Microscopical Society of London making it the oldest organisation of its kind in the world. In 1866, the society gained its royal charter and took its current name. Founded as a society of amateurs, its membership consists of individuals of all skill levels in numerous related fields from throughout the world. Every year since 1841, the society has published its own scientific journal, the Journal of Microscopy, which contains peer-reviewed papers and book reviews. The society is a registered charity that is dedicated to advancing science, developing careers and supporting wider understanding of science and microscopy through its Outreach activities.
The Journal of Microscopy is the monthly peer-reviewed scientific journal of the Royal Microscopical Society which covers all aspects of microscopy including spatially resolved spectroscopy, compositional mapping, and image analysis. This includes technology and applications in physics, chemistry, material science, and the life sciences. It is published by Wiley-Blackwell on behalf of the Society. The editor-in-chief is Michelle Peckham, a Cell Biology professor at University of Leeds.
The journal publishes review articles, original research papers, short communications, and letters to the editor. It was established in 1841 as the Transactions of the Microscopical Society of London, obtaining its current name in 1869, with volume numbering restarting at 1.
A condenser is an optical lens which renders a divergent light beam from a point light source into a parallel or converging beam to illuminate an object to be imaged.
Andrew Pritchard FRSE was an English naturalist and natural history dealer who made significant improvements to microscopy and studied microscopic organisms. His belief that God and nature were one led him to the Unitarians, a religious movement to which he and his family devoted much energy. He became a leading member of Newington Green Unitarian Church in north London, and worked to build a school there.
Simon Henry Gage was a professor of anatomy, Histology, and Embryology at Cornell University and an important figure in the history of American microscopy. His book, The Microscope, appeared in seventeen editions. In 1931, a volume of the American Journal of Anatomy was dedicated to Gage on the occasion of his eightieth birthday.
Mary Ann Allard Booth was an American microscopist.
The American Microscopical Society (AMS) is a society of biologists dedicated to promoting the use of microscopy.
Peter David Nellist, is a British physicist and materials scientist, currently a professor in the Department of Materials at the University of Oxford. He is noted for pioneering new techniques in high-resolution electron microscopy.