Cumulative learning

Last updated

Cumulative learning is the cognitive process by which we accumulate and improve knowledge and abilities that serve as building blocks for subsequent cognitive development. [1] A primary benefit of such is that it consolidates knowledge one has obtained through experience, and allows the facilitation of further learning through analogical knowledge transfer. [1] This is seen through students' ability to transfer knowledge across contexts and through time. [2]

Contents

It is a concept that has been widely written about in psychological literature, with scholars particularly drawing attention to the fact it allows for the incremental increase in scope of ability and knowledge., [3] without damaging pre-existing skills. More meaningfully constructed knowledge can be better reserved for future use. [4]

This theory serves as an alternative approach to maturational theories such as the model proposed by Jean Piaget concerning intellectual and learning development. [5]

Theory

American psychologist Robert M. Gagne first introduced the concept of cumulative learning in 1968 on the basis that intellectual skills can be broken down into simpler ones. [6] His model proposed that new learning builds upon prior learning and is dependent on the combination of previously acquired knowledge. [4] Gagné believed that learning is cumulative and human intellectual development consistent of building up increasingly complex [4] interacting structures of learned capabilities. [1]

Gagné's theory was explored by Bruner, who argued that as children grow, the curriculum should repeatedly present learned information and expand on it until the child understands the information and its relations more completely. [1] In a later explanation, Gagne stated that "there is a specifiable minimal prerequisite for each new learning task," and that if the learner cannot recall this capability, learning a new task is not possible. [7]

The core assumption underlying the concept is that the learning of humans is cumulative by nature, so learned knowledge is consolidated and reproduced for further learning situations. [4] There are four types of knowledge constructed in cumulative learning: abstract, concrete, general and specific. Abstract knowledge reduces the amount of detailed information in the cognitive structure, with concrete generating additional details about the entities of information in such a place. General and specific knowledge are the opposites of each other; the former extends the reference set of information, and the latter narrows it. [4]

According to Gagne, the cumulative learning theory is better than the maturational model because of the focus on the hierarchies of capabilities. [8] In this framework, instead of the content and concepts of the task, the learning hierarchies address intellectual skills and strategies. [9] He demonstrated this in the case of children's performance on conservation tasks over time. [8]

Development

Since the concept of cumulative learning was first written about by Gagné, there have been great advances in the understanding of it. Cumulative learning is a hallmark of human cognition, offering an integrated view of processes that have been previously treated in isolation. [3] At the heart of it is unification - new information is integrated by default with already acquired knowledge. [3] There are 14 dimensions which determine the performance characteristics of cumulative learning implementation, separated into three groupings: memory management, temporal capacity and granularity, and generality. [3] Each of these areas help to identify just how cumulative learning works in practice. An ideal cumulative learner should be capable of learning multiple things consecutively, accumulating knowledge in any situation and being able to use it in unforeseen future contexts. [3]

Other works have noted that cumulative learning allows a learner to acquire knowledge through four processes: activating existing schema relevant for new information, concretely generalising the given information, extracting commonalities and reorganising the information in the cognitive structure accordingly. [4] Whilst they appear to differ slightly from the ones mentioned above, they are referring to the same processes in principle. Once they have acquired new information, learners try to incorporate it into their existing knowledge structures with these new cognitive structures - then interact cumulatively with further learning situations. [4]

A further two cognitive processes are identified as being inherent to cumulative learning - aggregation and abstraction. Aggregation is where a learner extracts and identifies information into a coherent knowledge structure, and abstraction is the process of extracting commonalities from the underlying structure of knowledge and created mental models. Learners can also use a combination of both to assist their knowledge retention and utilisation. [1]

Application

The concept of cumulative learning can, and has been, applied to real-world situations. A very simple example is the saying 'you can't run before you can walk'; the procedural memory built while learning to walk is necessary before one can start to learn to run. Pronouncing words is impossible without first learning to pronounce the vowels and consonants that make them up (hence babies' babbling). This is an essential cognitive capacity, allowing prior development to produce new foundations for further cognitive development.

There is plenty of literature surrounding the use of cumulative learning in artificial intelligence and machine learning. Artificially general intelligent systems use cumulative learning, as they need to handle unknown dynamic environments where information isn't known upfront [3] - precisely as described in the principle of cumulative learning. With regard to machine learning, information is compared and put into a framework for use with future processes or problem-solving tasks. [4] Mechanisms in learning that can result in the development of knowledge and skills are cumulative and structural in nature.

Arguably, all learning is cumulative learning, as all learning depends on previous learning. [10] Cumulative learning consolidates the knowledge one has obtained through experiences, allowing it to be reproduced and exploited for subsequent learning situations through cumulative interaction between prior knowledge and new information. [1]

On a similar note, cumulative cultural learning is the idea that children inherit group-specific knowledge from the cultural ecologies they inhabit. [11] Children construct new knowledge by updating and revising previous beliefs, learning through observations, participation and imitation. [11] It shows how the principle of cumulative learning can be applied to situations from an early age, and is present in all learning opportunities throughout a person's lifetime. This type of cumulative learning is also reflected in the policy rhetoric - there is a continuous building of knowledge, addition of new skills and new meanings given to existing abilities.; [2] something which is required for the development of new policies.

Experiments are deemed valuable because they promote cumulative learning - the replication and extension of experimental designs are the most reliable route to it. [12] They provide learning opportunities as if a test doesn't go as planned, a researcher can use the information gained to adapt the methods used in the next experiment. However, relying on the naturally occurring replication of experimental research may not suffice to promote cumulative learning because interventions and outcomes measures are different across disparate contexts. [12]

Criticism

A criticism cites that cumulative learning theory is inadequate as a general theory of mental development because it is not sufficiently developed in such a way that it permits empirical tests of it. [13] Whilst this may be true, it is clear that the concept itself is prevalent in cognitive development - as illustrated through the ways children learn and use new knowledge to inform future situations.

Related Research Articles

Educational psychology is the branch of psychology concerned with the scientific study of human learning. The study of learning processes, from both cognitive and behavioral perspectives, allows researchers to understand individual differences in intelligence, cognitive development, affect, motivation, self-regulation, and self-concept, as well as their role in learning. The field of educational psychology relies heavily on quantitative methods, including testing and measurement, to enhance educational activities related to instructional design, classroom management, and assessment, which serve to facilitate learning processes in various educational settings across the lifespan.

An instructional theory is "a theory that offers explicit guidance on how to better help people learn and develop." It provides insights about what is likely to happen and why with respect to different kinds of teaching and learning activities while helping indicate approaches for their evaluation. Instructional designers focus on how to best structure material and instructional behavior to facilitate learning.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Learning theory (education)</span> Theory that describes how students receive, process, and retain knowledge during learning

Learning theory describes how students receive, process, and retain knowledge during learning. Cognitive, emotional, and environmental influences, as well as prior experience, all play a part in how understanding, or a worldview, is acquired or changed and knowledge and skills retained.

Robert Mills Gagné was an American educational psychologist best known for his Conditions of Learning. He instructed during World War II when he worked with the Army Air Corps training pilots. He went on to develop a series of studies and works that simplified and explained what he and others believed to be good instruction. Gagné was also involved in applying concepts of instructional theory to the design of computer-based training and multimedia-based learning.

Instructional design (ID), also known as instructional systems design and originally known as instructional systems development (ISD), is the practice of systematically designing, developing and delivering instructional materials and experiences, both digital and physical, in a consistent and reliable fashion toward an efficient, effective, appealing, engaging and inspiring acquisition of knowledge. The process consists broadly of determining the state and needs of the learner, defining the end goal of instruction, and creating some "intervention" to assist in the transition. The outcome of this instruction may be directly observable and scientifically measured or completely hidden and assumed. There are many instructional design models, but many are based on the ADDIE model with the five phases: analysis, design, development, implementation, and evaluation.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Jean Piaget</span> Swiss psychologist, biologist, logician, philosopher and academic

Jean William Fritz Piaget was a Swiss psychologist known for his work on child development. Piaget's theory of cognitive development and epistemological view are together called genetic epistemology.

A graphic organizer, also known as a knowledge map, concept map, story map, cognitive organizer, advance organizer, or concept diagram, is a pedagogical tool that uses visual symbols to express knowledge and concepts through relationships between them. The main purpose of a graphic organizer is to provide a visual aid to facilitate learning and instruction.

Conditions of Learning, by Robert M. Gagné, was originally published in 1965 by Holt, Rinehart and Winston and describes eight kinds of learning and nine events of instruction. This theory of learning involved two steps. The theory stipulates that there are several different types or levels of learning. The significance of these classifications is that each different type requires different types of instruction. Gagné identifies five major categories of learning: verbal information, intellectual skills, cognitive strategies, motor skills and attitudes. Different internal and external conditions are necessary for each type of learning. For example, for cognitive strategies to be learned, there must be a chance to practice developing new solutions to problems; to learn attitudes, the learner must be exposed to a credible role model or persuasive arguments.

In psychology, cognitivism is a theoretical framework for understanding the mind that gained credence in the 1950s. The movement was a response to behaviorism, which cognitivists said neglected to explain cognition. Cognitive psychology derived its name from the Latin cognoscere, referring to knowing and information, thus cognitive psychology is an information-processing psychology derived in part from earlier traditions of the investigation of thought and problem solving.

Situated learning is a theory that explains an individual's acquisition of professional skills and includes research on apprenticeship into how legitimate peripheral participation leads to membership in a community of practice. Situated learning "takes as its focus the relationship between learning and the social situation in which it occurs".

The psychology of learning refers to theories and research on how individuals learn. There are many theories of learning. Some take on a more behaviorist approach which focuses on inputs and reinforcements. Other approaches, such as neuroscience and social cognition, focus more on how the brain's organization and structure influence learning. Some psychological approaches, such as social constructivism, focus more on one's interaction with the environment and with others. Other theories, such as those related to motivation, like the growth mindset, focus more on individuals' perceptions of ability.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Constructivism (philosophy of education)</span> Philosophical viewpoint about the nature of knowledge; theory of knowledge

Constructivism in education is a theory that suggests that learners do not passively acquire knowledge through direct instruction. Instead, they construct their understanding through experiences and social interaction, integrating new information with their existing knowledge. This theory originates from Swiss developmental psychologist Jean Piaget's theory of cognitive development.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Metacognition</span> Self-awareness about thinking, higher-order thinking skills

Metacognition is an awareness of one's thought processes and an understanding of the patterns behind them. The term comes from the root word meta, meaning "beyond", or "on top of". Metacognition can take many forms, such as reflecting on one's ways of thinking, and knowing when and how oneself and others use particular strategies for problem-solving. There are generally two components of metacognition: (1) cognitive conceptions and (2) cognitive regulation system. Research has shown that both components of metacognition play key roles in metaconceptual knowledge and learning. Metamemory, defined as knowing about memory and mnemonic strategies, is an important aspect of metacognition.

Cognitive apprenticeship is a theory that emphasizes the importance of the process in which a master of a skill teaches that skill to an apprentice.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Zone of proximal development</span> Difference between what a learner can do without help and what they can do with help

The zone of proximal development (ZPD) is a concept in educational psychology. It represents the space between what a learner is capable of doing unsupported and what the learner cannot do even with support. It is the range where the learner is able to perform, but only with support from a teacher or a peer with more knowledge or expertise. The concept was introduced, but not fully developed, by psychologist Lev Vygotsky (1896–1934) during the last three years of his life. Vygotsky argued that a child gets involved in a dialogue with the "more knowledgeable other", such as a peer or an adult, and gradually, through social interaction and sense-making, develops the ability to solve problems independently and do certain tasks without help. Following Vygotsky, some educators believe that the role of education is to give children experiences that are within their zones of proximal development, thereby encouraging and advancing their individual learning skills and strategies.

Transfer of learning occurs when people apply information, strategies, and skills they have learned to a new situation or context. Transfer is not a discrete activity, but is rather an integral part of the learning process. Researchers attempt to identify when and how transfer occurs and to offer strategies to improve transfer.

Domain-general learning theories of development suggest that humans are born with mechanisms in the brain that exist to support and guide learning on a broad level, regardless of the type of information being learned. Domain-general learning theories also recognize that although learning different types of new information may be processed in the same way and in the same areas of the brain, different domains also function interdependently. Because these generalized domains work together, skills developed from one learned activity may translate into benefits with skills not yet learned. Another facet of domain-general learning theories is that knowledge within domains is cumulative, and builds under these domains over time to contribute to our greater knowledge structure. Psychologists whose theories align with domain-general framework include developmental psychologist Jean Piaget, who theorized that people develop a global knowledge structure which contains cohesive, whole knowledge internalized from experience, and psychologist Charles Spearman, whose work led to a theory on the existence of a single factor accounting for all general cognitive ability.

The expertise reversal effect refers to the reversal of the effectiveness of instructional techniques on learners with differing levels of prior knowledge. The primary recommendation that stems from the expertise reversal effect is that instructional design methods need to be adjusted as learners acquire more knowledge in a specific domain. Expertise is described as "the ability to perform fluently in a specific class of tasks."

The main purpose of theories of second-language acquisition (SLA) is to shed light on how people who already know one language learn a second language. The field of second-language acquisition involves various contributions, such as linguistics, sociolinguistics, psychology, cognitive science, neuroscience, and education. These multiple fields in second-language acquisition can be grouped as four major research strands: (a) linguistic dimensions of SLA, (b) cognitive dimensions of SLA, (c) socio-cultural dimensions of SLA, and (d) instructional dimensions of SLA. While the orientation of each research strand is distinct, they are in common in that they can guide us to find helpful condition to facilitate successful language learning. Acknowledging the contributions of each perspective and the interdisciplinarity between each field, more and more second language researchers are now trying to have a bigger lens on examining the complexities of second language acquisition.

Meaningful learning refers to the act of higher order thinking and development through intellectual engagement that uses pattern recognition and concept association. It can include—but is not limited to—critical and creative thinking, inquiry, problem solving, critical discourse, and metacognitive skills. The concept and theory of meaningful learning is that learned information is completely understood and can now be used to make connections with other previously known knowledge aiding in further understanding. Since information is stored in a network of connections, it can be accessed from multiple starting points depending on the context of recall. Meaningful learning is often contrasted with rote learning, a method in which information is memorized sometimes without elements of understanding or relation to other objects or situations. A real-world example of a concept the learner has learned is an instance of meaningful learning.

References

  1. 1 2 3 4 5 6 Lee, JungMi (1 January 2012). "Cumulative Learning". In Seel, Prof Dr Norbert M. (ed.). Encyclopedia of the Sciences of Learning . Springer US. pp.  887–893. doi:10.1007/978-1-4419-1428-6_1660. ISBN   978-1-4419-1427-9.
  2. 1 2 Maton, Karl (1 January 2009). "Cumulative and segmented learning: exploring the role of curriculum structures in knowledge-building". British Journal of Sociology of Education. 30 (1): 43–57. doi:10.1080/01425690802514342. S2CID   40418145.
  3. 1 2 3 4 5 6 Thórisson, Kristinn R.; Bieger, Jordi; Li, Xiang; Wang, Pei (2019). "Cumulative Learning". Artificial General Intelligence. Lecture Notes in Computer Science. Vol. 11654. pp. 198–208. doi:10.1007/978-3-030-27005-6_20. ISBN   978-3-030-27004-9. S2CID   198981266.
  4. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 Lee, JM. "Cumulative Learning and Schematization in Problem Solving".
  5. ↑ LaBarba, Richard C. (1981). Foundations of Developmental Psychology . New York: Academic Press. pp.  308. ISBN   0124323502.
  6. ↑ Seel, Norbert M. (2011). Encyclopedia of the Sciences of Learning . New York: Springer Science & Business Media. pp.  889. ISBN   9781441955036.
  7. ↑ Zimmerman, Barry J; Schunk, Dale H (2003). Educational psychology : a century of contributions. Mahwah, N.J.: L. Erlbaum Associates. p. 311. ISBN   0805836810.
  8. 1 2 Royer, James M. (2006). The Cognitive Revolution on Educational Psychology. Greenwich, CT: Information Age Publishing. p. 208. ISBN   1593111622.
  9. ↑ Wayne, Hugo (2015). Boundaries of the Educational Imagination. Cape Town: African Minds. p. 149. ISBN   9781928331018.
  10. ↑ Richey, Rita C. "The future role of Robert M. Gagne in instructional design." The Legacy of Robert M. Gagne (2000): 255-281.
  11. 1 2 Legare, Cristine H. (24 December 2019). "The Development of Cumulative Cultural Learning". Annual Review of Developmental Psychology. 1 (1): 119–147. doi:10.1146/annurev-devpsych-121318-084848. PMC   10798662 . PMID   38250669. S2CID   210130442.
  12. 1 2 Dunning, Thad (11 May 2016). "Transparency, Replication, and Cumulative Learning: What Experiments Alone Cannot Achieve". Annual Review of Political Science. 19 (1): S1–S23. doi: 10.1146/annurev-polisci-072516-014127 .
  13. ↑ Jensen, Arthur (2012). Educational Differences (RLE Edu L). Oxon: Routledge. p. 36. ISBN   9780415506243.
This page is based on this Wikipedia article
Text is available under the CC BY-SA 4.0 license; additional terms may apply.
Images, videos and audio are available under their respective licenses.