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The Great Vowel Shift was a series of changes in the pronunciation of the English language that took place primarily between 1400 and 1700,beginning in southern England and today having influenced effectively all dialects of English. Through this vowel shift,the pronunciation of all Middle English long vowels were changed. Some consonant sounds also changed,particularly those that became silent;the term Great Vowel Shift is sometimes used to include these consonantal changes.
Old English,or Anglo-Saxon,was the earliest recorded form of the English language,spoken in England and southern and eastern Scotland in the early Middle Ages. It developed from the languages brought to Great Britain by Anglo-Saxon settlers in the mid-5th century,and the first Old English literary works date from the mid-7th century. After the Norman Conquest of 1066,English was replaced for several centuries by Anglo-Norman as the language of the upper classes. This is regarded as marking the end of the Old English era,since during the subsequent period the English language was heavily influenced by Anglo-Norman,developing into what is now known as Middle English in England and Early Scots in Scotland.
The voiceless alveolar lateral fricative is a type of consonantal sound,used in some spoken languages. The symbol in the International Phonetic Alphabet that represents voiceless dental,alveolar,and postalveolar lateral fricatives is,and the equivalent X-SAMPA symbol is K.
The voiced palatal approximant is a type of consonant used in many spoken languages. The symbol in the International Phonetic Alphabet that represents this sound is ⟨j⟩. The equivalent X-SAMPA symbol is j,and in the Americanist phonetic notation it is ⟨y⟩. Because the English name of the letter J,jay,starts with,the approximant is sometimes instead called yod (jod),as in the phonological history terms yod-dropping and yod-coalescence.
The voiced bilabial fricative is a type of consonantal sound,used in some spoken languages. The symbol in the International Phonetic Alphabet that represents this sound is ⟨β⟩,and the equivalent X-SAMPA symbol is B. The official symbol ⟨β⟩is the Greek letter beta.
The open back unrounded vowel,or low back unrounded vowel,is a type of vowel sound,used in some spoken languages. The symbol in the International Phonetic Alphabet that represents this sound is ⟨ɑ⟩,and the equivalent X-SAMPA symbol is A. The letter ⟨ɑ⟩is called script a because it lacks the extra hook on top of a printed letter a,which corresponds to a different vowel,the open front unrounded vowel. Script a,which has its linear stroke on the bottom right,should not be confused with turned script a,,which has its linear stroke on the top left and corresponds to a rounded version of this vowel,the open back rounded vowel.
The open back rounded vowel,or low back rounded vowel,is a type of vowel sound,used in some spoken languages. The symbol in the International Phonetic Alphabet that represents this sound is ⟨ɒ⟩. It is called Latin turned alpha being a rotated version of Latin alpha. It seems a "turned script a",being a rotated version of "script (cursive) a",which is the variant of a that lacks the extra stroke on top of a "printed a". Latin turned alpha a ⟨ɒ⟩has its linear stroke on the left,whereas Latin alpha a ⟨ɑ⟩has its linear stroke on the right.
The close front rounded vowel,or high front rounded vowel,is a type of vowel sound,used in some spoken languages. The symbol in the International Phonetic Alphabet that represents this sound is ⟨y⟩,and the equivalent X-SAMPA symbol is y. Across many languages,it is most commonly represented orthographically as ⟨ü⟩ or ⟨y⟩ but also as ⟨u⟩;⟨iu⟩/⟨yu⟩;⟨уь⟩;or ⟨ү⟩.
The close central unrounded vowel,or high central unrounded vowel,is a type of vowel sound used in some languages. The symbol in the International Phonetic Alphabet that represents this sound is ⟨ɨ⟩,namely the lower-case letter i with a horizontal bar. Both the symbol and the sound are commonly referred to as barred i.
The close central rounded vowel,or high central rounded vowel,is a type of vowel sound used in some spoken languages. The symbol in the International Phonetic Alphabet that represents this sound is ⟨ʉ⟩,and the equivalent X-SAMPA symbol is }. The sound is also commonly referred to by the name of its symbol,"barred u".
The close-mid front rounded vowel,or high-mid front rounded vowel,is a type of vowel sound used in some spoken languages.
The close-mid back unrounded vowel,or high-mid back unrounded vowel,is a type of vowel sound,used in some spoken languages. Its symbol in the International Phonetic Alphabet is ⟨ɤ⟩,called "ram's horn." This symbol is distinct from the symbol for the voiced velar fricative,⟨ɣ⟩,which has a descender,but some texts use this symbol for the voiced velar fricative.
The open-mid central rounded vowel,or low-mid central rounded vowel,is a vowel sound,used in some spoken languages. The symbol in the International Phonetic Alphabet that represents this sound is ⟨ɞ⟩,and the equivalent X-SAMPA symbol is 3\. The symbol is called closed reversed epsilon. It was added to the IPA in 1993;before that,this vowel was transcribed ⟨ɔ̈⟩.
The open-mid central unrounded vowel,or low-mid central unrounded vowel,is a type of vowel sound,used in some spoken languages. The symbol in the International Phonetic Alphabet that represents this sound is ⟨ɜ⟩. The IPA symbol is not the digit ⟨3⟩ or the Cyrillic small letter Ze (з). The symbol is instead a reversed Latinized variant of the lowercase epsilon,ɛ. The value was specified only in 1993;until then,⟨ɜ⟩was an alternative symbol for the mid central unrounded vowel.
Anatoly Liberman is a linguist,medievalist,etymologist,poet,translator of poetry,and literary critic.
Bade is a West Chadic language spoken by the Bade people in Yobe State and Jigawa State,Nigeria. Their traditional ruler is the Emir of Bade. Similar to many other Western African languages,Bade is a vulnerable language at great risk of extinction. With 356,000 speakers,the language and the culture of the Bade people have suffered over the last several years. As the language continues to fade,the culture and historic value associated with the language perishes as well. The local dialect is shifting from Bade to Hausa. Across West Africa,the impact on local communities through the loss of the indigenous tongues will be significant. The endangerment of the Bade language represents the worldwide language diversity that is at risk. Many African languages have only received little linguistic attention,impacting these African languages.
The pronunciation of the digraph ⟨wh⟩ in English has changed over time,and still varies today between different regions and accents. It is now most commonly pronounced,the same as a plain initial ⟨w⟩,although some dialects,particularly those of Scotland,Ireland,and the Southern United States,retain the traditional pronunciation,generally realized as,a voiceless "w" sound. The process by which the historical has become in most modern varieties of English is called the wine–whine merger. It is also referred to as glide cluster reduction.
Sulcalization,also called internal rounding,in phonetics,is the pronunciation of a sound,typically a sibilant consonant,such as English and,with a deep groove running along the back of the tongue that focuses the airstream on the teeth,producing a more intense sound. This is accomplished by raising the sides of the back of the tongue and leaving a hollow along the mid-line. It is not clear if all sibilants are grooved to at least some extent. Catford (1977) observed that the degree of tongue grooving differs between places of articulation as well as between languages;however,no language is known to contrast sibilants based purely on the presence or absence of tongue grooving.
Henry Ansgar Kelly is distinguished research professor of English at the University of California,Los Angeles.
Susan M. Fitzmaurice is a British linguist. Since 2006,she has been professor and chair of English linguistics at the University of Sheffield as well as vice-president and head of the Faculty of Arts and Humanities. She works on the historical linguistics of English,specialising in historical pragmatics,socio-linguistics and computational linguistics. In 2020,she was elected president of the Philological Society.
References
- ↑ "Minkova, Donka – Department of English UCLA". UCLA English.
