Emirate of Muhammara امارة المحمرة | |||||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
1812–1925 | |||||||||||
Status | Autonomous Emirate | ||||||||||
Capital | Al-Muhammarah | ||||||||||
Common languages | Arabic | ||||||||||
Religion | Islam | ||||||||||
History | |||||||||||
• Established | 1812 | ||||||||||
• Discovery of Oil | 1908 | ||||||||||
1925 | |||||||||||
| |||||||||||
Today part of | Iran |
The Emirate of Muhammara, also known as the Sheikhdom of Muhammara (sometimes also called the Emirate of Arabistan or Sheikhdom of Arabistan), [1] was an autonomous emirate in modern-day Khuzestan province in Iran. During the late 19th and early 20th centuries, lasting until the then ruler of Iran, Reza Shah, re-established full control over the region in 1925. [2] Officially it was part of Qajar Iran, but the broader Khuzestan region had already enjoyed a large degree of autonomy under the previous rule of the Banu Ka'b (1740–1840), [3] under whom it had become thoroughly Arabized (whence the name Arabistan). [4]
In the 1840s, the ruling sheikh of the Banu Ka'b became a vasal of Jabir al-Ka'bi (1780–1881), in his capacity as the sheikh of Muhammara (Khorramshahr), [5] a port city in southern Khuzestan which had risen to prominence in the previous decade. [6] After the Anglo-Persian War, Sheikh Jabir grew completely independent of the Ka'b, [7] though as a member of the Ka'b tribe himself, he did claim the title "Sheikh of the Ka'b". [8] Under Jabir's successors Miz'al ibn Jabir (r. 1881–1897) and Khaz'al ibn Jabir (r. 1897–1924), [9] the power of the Sheikhs of Muhammara grew to such an extent so as to become the most significant power in the southern Khuzestan, notably also receiving some British colonial support. [10]
Ruling from Muhammara as his capital, [11] Sheikh Khaz'al turned to Arab nationalism, and emboldened particularly by the British discovery of oil in the region in 1908, he sought to gain full independence from Iran. [12] He staged revolts in 1916 and 1924, the latter of which (called the Sheikh Khaz'al rebellion) led to the final subjugation of the emirate by Iran in November 1924 – January 1925, [13] which became a part of the modern Khuzestan province in 1936. [14] Following the downfall of Sheikh Khaz'al's rule in Arabistan, many Iranian Arabs fled to neighboring countries such as (southern) Iraq and Kuwait, as well as to Bahrain and to the al-Ahsa' Governorate in Saudi Arabia, thus also introducing a significant Shi'i population into these countries. [15]
The semi-autonomous rule of Arab sheikhs over Khuzestan during this period is regarded by Arab nationalists as an abortive attempt at Arab independence, [16] while Iranian historians tend to treat it as part of the long-standing British attempts to control the region. [17]
The majority of Khuzestan province (Arabistan), with the exception of the Bakhtiari lands, fell within the geographical range of Mesopotamia [18] while bordering the Zagros mountains to the East.
Khuzestan province (Arabistan), a tract isolated by mountains, rivers and marsh from Mesopotamia to the Zagros mountains, had maintained a semi-independent position during the post-Safavid period, free from any but sporadic interference from the ottomans and Persians. [19]
The Banu Ka’b rulers of Arabistan had carved out an independent existence since the late seventeenth century by playing the Persians against the Ottomans. Because of Qajar weakness, the Arab tribes in Khuzestan province retained a large measure of autonomy. [20] Until the early seventeenth century, the area east of the Shatt al-Arab was an Arab emirate ruled by Sheikh Mubarak bin Abdul Muttalib. He ruled his emirate independently of both the Persian and Ottoman Empires. A later ruler, Sheikh Mansour, resisted Shah Abbas's attempts to interfere in his affairs. He also rejected the Shah’ s call to join the Persian forces besieging Baghdad in 1623.
Source: [21]
By the eighteenth century, the Bani Ka'b had constructed one of the Persian Gulf's largest seagoing fleets. Different accounts indicate that during this period of transition, the Ka’b recognized Ottoman sovereignty, [22] and that it was only after their post 1720 expansion into Arabistan that the question of their allegiance came to the fore. This was when Nader Shah (1732–47 ) dispatched Muhammad Husayn Qajar to besiege Quban and the Ka'b sued for peace thereby accepting Persian suzerainty for the first time. [22]
Thanks to a favorable location and the activities of this fleet, the economy on both sides of the Shatt flourished, and Ka‘b rulers were able to incorporate the Persian lands along the Karun as well as the nominally Ottoman districts of Muhammarah, Haffar, and Tamar, while retaining a degree of autonomy from both the Ottomans and the Persians. [22]
In 1763, the Ottoman authorities, in co-operation with the British, sought to weaken the Bani Ka’ b tribes and a joint Anglo-Ottoman campaign marched on Arabistan. This culminated in victory for the Arab tribes. Two years later, Persia launched a violent and destructive military campaign that led the Arab inhabitants of Arabistan to abandon their capital in Qabban and seek refuge in the village of Al-Fallahiyya. Because of this, Arabistan became fragmented and it divided into scattered tribal groups, the most prominent of which was the Al-Muhaysin. In due course, the capital of Arabistan moved again from the village of Al-Fallahiyya to the city of Al-Muhammara, which had been built by the Bani Ka’ b Arabs near the mouth of the river Karun on the Shatt Al-Arab, and continued to be Arabistan’ s capital until 1925. Al Muhammara was given its name because its soil was red.
Since the emergence of Mohammerah in 1812 as an autonomous emirate in Arabistan, it had been a bone of contention between the Persian and Ottoman Empires. [23] The Emirate's strategic and commercial location in the Shatt al Arab accentuated Persian-Ottoman rivalry for control over it. Muhammarah subsequently became a hostage to the two states, until the 1847 Erzurum Treaty allotted it to Persia. [23] Despite the treaty, the emirate continued to be an autonomous entity, and the flow of Arab tribes across the Shatt al Arab preserved the Arab identity of the eastern bank of the Shatt. Thus Richard Frye maintains that the Arabs of Khuzistan and of the seaports of southern Persia were simply an extension of Arab settlements from the western bank. [24]
In 1890, a British consulate was established at Muhammarah. [25]
At the turn of the twentieth century, Arabistan was still a frontier zone that enjoyed considerable autonomy, and two prominent British observers of the time commented on its sense of separateness. [26] In the words of journalist Valentine Chirol, “The Turk and the Persian are both aliens in the land, equally hated by the Arab population, and both have proved equally unworthy and incompetent stewards of a splendid estate. [26] British imperialist George Curzon remarked that “No love is lost between the two people, the Persian regarding the Arab as an interloper and a dullard, and the Arab regarding the Persian, with some justice in this region, as a plotter and a rogue. [26]
In 1901 the Persian government had granted William Knox D'Arcy the exclusive right to drill for oil in certain parts of Persia, including the region in which the territories of the ruler of Arabistan were located. But in January 1903, the Shah of Persia, Mozaffar ad-Din Shah Qajar, granted a firman (Imperial edict) to the sheikh using language in which the Qajar government admitted, “at least by implication,” that it had exceeded its powers in conferring certain privileges on D’Arcy. The lands in question had belonged in the past to the sheikh, his tribesmen, and their ancestors. [27]
In 1908, William Knox D'Arcy discovered oil near Masjed Soleiman by contract with its local ruler, Ali-Qoli Khan Bakhtiari. [28] [ page needed ] [29]
Source: [22]
Starting with Colonel Chesney’ s expeditions (1835–37) to prove the navigability of the Tigris and Euphrates, which concluded that Muhammarah should be the center of communications between India and Europe, the East India Company tried to establish a foothold in the region. As Gamazof notes, the scramble over Muhammarah was understandable, for it had many desirable features. These included its anchorage in the deep and broad Haffar Canal; its good weather, safe harbor, and sweet water; the possibility of constructing stores and a wharf, or even a complete port; its strategic command of the Karun and the Shatt and the great rivers forming it; and its proximity to the trade of Baghdad, Basra, and the many local tribes that carried on commerce independently.
The same conditions also protected them from intrusive Iranian interference, while acceptance of the suzerainty of Iran ’ s rulers further ensured independence from Ottoman interference. Yet acceptance of suzerainty did not necessarily mean recognition of sovereignty, and the multiple claims of suzerainty over them, which continued through the second half of the nineteenth century, gave them even more room to maneuver.
The Shatt al-Arab is a river about 200 kilometres (120 mi) in length that is formed at the confluence of the Euphrates and Tigris rivers in the town of al-Qurnah in the Basra Governorate of southern Iraq. The southern end of the river constitutes the Iran–Iraq border down to its mouth, where it discharges into the Persian Gulf. The Shatt al-Arab varies in width from about 232 metres (761 ft) at Basra to 800 metres (2,600 ft) at its mouth. It is thought that the waterway formed relatively recently in geological time, with the Tigris and Euphrates originally emptying into the Persian Gulf via a channel further to the west. Kuwait's Bubiyan Island is part of the Shatt al-Arab delta.
Khuzestan province is one of the 31 provinces of Iran. Located in the southwest of the country, the province borders Iraq and the Persian Gulf, covering an area of 63,238 square kilometres (24,416 sq mi). Its capital is the city of Ahvaz. Since 2014, it has been part of Iran's Region 4.
Khorramshahr is a city in the Central District of Khorramshahr County, Khuzestan province, Iran, serving as capital of both the county and the district. It is also known in Arabic by the local ethnically Arab population as Al-Muhammarah.
Khazʽal bin Jabir bin Merdaw al-Kaʽbi, Muaz us-Sultana, and Sardar-e-Aqdas, was the Ruler of Arabistan, the Sheikh of Mohammerah from the Kasebite clan of the Banu Ka'b, of which he was the Sheikh of Sheikhs, the Overlord of the Mehaisan tribal confederation and the Ruler of the Shatt al-Arab.
Khuzestan province is located in southwestern Iran. Its history extends from the pre-Aryan ancient Elamite civilization to the modern-day Islamic Republic.
Jabir Bin Merdaw Al-Kaabi was the Sheikh of Mohammerah who established Mohammerah as a free port and shaikhdom during the 19th century of which he was the shaikh. Jabir was a shrewd and calculating individual. He established a cordial relationship with the Qajar kings. He remained in possession of Mohammerah with enjoyment of the title Nusrat-ul-Mulk until his death in October 1881. Jabir also became the imperial-appointed governor-general of his region. Jabir al- Kaabi was the leader of the Bani Kaab Arab tribe and the shaikh of Mohammerah during most of the nineteenth century.
Mazʽal ibn Jabir tribal leader of the Bani Kaab and Sheikh of Mohammerah He was the son of Haji Jabir Khan Ibn Merdaw and succeeded him upon his death. This was confirmed by an Imperial Qajar farman. Based on a report issued by the British Foreign Office in 1905 and various other political reports contemporary to the incident the assassination of Shaikh Miz'al bin Jaber was orchestrated by one of Ka'b's chiefs, a cousin of Shaikh Miz'al named Salmān bin Mansūr in 1897. The report further states that the sole survivor and youngest son of Haj Jaber, Shaikh Khaz'al, succeeded his brother following his demise.Some other accounts state that he was assassinated by his younger brother, Khazʽal Khan, while others state that he was slain by a palace guard under orders from Khazʽal.
The Neshan-e Aqdas was an Imperial Iranian Order founded in 1870 by the Qajar Shah of Iran Nassereddin. There were three classes, with two different styles for Iranians (Sardar) and foreigners (Nishan). The Order was dissolved upon the collapse of the Qajar dynasty.
Sadeq Khan Zand, also known as Mohammad Sadeq, was the fourth Shah of the Zand dynasty of Iran from August 22, 1779 until March 14, 1781.
Khorramshahr County known in Arabic as Al-Muhammarah, is in Khuzestan province, Iran. Its capital is the city of Khorramshahr.
The Banu Kaʿb are a nomadic Arab tribe which originated in the Najd region of the Arabian Peninsula, and inhabit Saudi Arabia, Iraq, Kuwait, and Iran (Khuzestan). They often raided, then settled various areas of southern and central Ottoman Iraq, in cities such as Basra and Nasiriyah, and also across the border in modern-day Khuzestan province in Iran, particularly near the city of Al-Muhammarah. From the early 18th century onwards, the Banu Kaʿb of Iraq began converting from Sunni to Shia Islam. Other branches of the Bani Kaʿb settled in Oman, the United Arab Emirates, and Morocco. The Banu Ka'b of Oman, Qatar and the UAE practice Sunni Islam while the Banu Ka'b of Iraq practice Shia Islam.
The Trucial States, also known as the Trucial Coast, the Trucial Sheikhdoms, Trucial Arabia or Trucial Oman, was a group of tribal confederations to the south of the Persian Gulf whose leaders had signed protective treaties, or truces, with the United Kingdom between 1820 and 1892.
1921 Persian coup d'état, known in Iran as 3 Esfand 1299 coup d'état, refers to several major events in Qajar Persia in 1921, which eventually led to the deposition of the Qajar dynasty and the establishment of the Pahlavi dynasty as the ruling house of Iran in 1925.
Arab separatism in Khuzestan was a decades-long separatist Arab movement in the western part of the Khuzestan Province in Iran.
The Sheikh Khazal rebellion refers to the 1924 Arab separatist uprising by Khazal al-Kabi, the Sheikh of Muhammara, in Iranian Khuzestan. The rebellion was quickly and efficiently suppressed by Reza Shah with minimal casualties, subduing the Bakhtiari tribes allied with Sheikh Khazal and resulting in his surrender and the end of Arab autonomy in Khuzestan.
Khuzestani Arabs are the Arab inhabitants of the Khuzestan province and the largest Arabic speaking community in Iran which primarily reside in the western half of Khuzestan. The capital of Khuzestan is Ahvaz. As of 2010, Khuzestani Arabs numbered around 1.6 million people.
Sheikh Abdullah Bin Khaz'al was the son of Sheikh Khazʽal Ibn Jabir of the Emirate of Mohammerah, overlord of the Muhaisin tribal confederation and Emir of the oil rich emirate of Mohammerah, today part of the Iranian province of Khuzistan. He led the 1945 movement "The revolt of Sheikh Abdullah Bin Khaz'al" against the Iranian government, but failed.
The Shatt al-Arab dispute was a territorial dispute that took place in the Shatt al-Arab region from 1936 until 1975. The Shatt al-Arab was considered an important channel for the oil exports of both Iran and Iraq, and in 1937, Iran and the newly independent Iraq signed a treaty to settle the dispute. In the 1975 Algiers Agreement, Iraq made territorial concessions—including the Shatt al-Arab waterway—in exchange for normalized relations. In return for Iraq agreeing that the frontier on the waterway ran along the entire thalweg, Iran ended its support for the Peshmerga in the Second Iraqi–Kurdish War. The Iraqi government reneged on the Agreement shortly before launching the Iran-Iraq War in 1980, but accepted it once more after the war.
Haji Muhammad Ali Khan, Rais al-Tujjar, CIE was the Prime Minister of Arabistan and chief of its traders. He was also the Sheikh of Mohammerah's advisor on Persian affairs.
The province of Khuzestan was a southwestern province of Safavid Iran, corresponding to the present-day province of Khuzestan.
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