Energy expenditure

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Energy expenditure, often estimated as the total daily energy expenditure (TDEE), is the amount of energy burned by the human body.

Contents

Causes of energy expenditure

Resting metabolic rate

Resting metabolic rate generally composes 60 to 75 percent of TDEE. [1] Because adipose tissue does not use much energy to maintain, fat free mass is a better predictor of metabolic rate. A taller person will typically have less fat mass than a shorter person at the same weight and therefore burn more energy. Men also carry more skeletal muscle tissue on average than women, and other sex differences in organ size account for sex differences in metabolic rate. Obese individuals burn more energy than lean individuals due to increase in the amount of calories needed to maintain adipose tissue and other organs that grow in size in response to obesity. [2] At rest, the largest fractions of energy are burned by the skeletal muscles, brain, and liver; around 20 percent each. [2] Increasing skeletal muscle tissue can increase metabolic rate. [1]

Activity

Energy burned during physical activity includes the exercise activity thermogenesis (EAT) and non-exercise activity thermogenesis (NEAT). [1]

Thermic effect of food

Thermic effect of food is the amount of energy burned digesting food, around 10 percent of TDEE. Proteins are the component of food requiring the most energy to digest. [3]

Changing energy expenditure

Weight change

Losing or gaining weight affects the energy expenditure. Reduced energy expenditure after weight loss can be a major challenge for people seeking to avoid weight regain after weight loss. [4] It is controversial whether losing weight causes a decrease in energy expenditure greater than expected by the loss of adipose tissue and fat-free mass during weight loss. [5] This excess reduction is termed adaptive thermogenesis and it is estimated that it might compose 50 to 100 kcal/day in people actively losing weight. Some studies have reported that it disappears after a short period of weight stability, while others report longer-lasting effects. [2]

Changing the activity level

Increasing exercise is recommended as a way to increase energy expenditure in individuals seeking to lose weight. [6] [7]

Drugs

Some drugs used for weight loss work by increasing energy expenditure. Two of the earliest weight loss drugs, 2,4-dinitrophenol and thyroid hormone, increase energy expenditure, but both were withdrawn from use due to risks. [8] Adrenergic agonists, especially those that work on the beta-2 adrenergic receptor, increase energy expenditure. Although some such as clenbuterol are used without medical approval for weight loss, none have achieved approval for this indication due to cardiac risks. [8] [9]

Other drugs such as atypical antipsychotics are believed to reduce energy expenditure. [10] [11]

Effects

Energy expenditure is a leading factor in regulating appetite and energy intake in humans. [12]

Measurement

Formulas have been devised to estimate energy expenditure in humans, but they may not be accurate for people with certain illnesses [13] [14] [15] or the elderly. [16] Not all formula are accurate in overweight or obese individuals. [17]

Wearable devices can help estimate energy expenditure from physical activity but their accuracy varies. [18]

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Abdominal obesity</span> Excess fat around the stomach and abdomen

Abdominal obesity, also known as central obesity and truncal obesity, is the human condition of an excessive concentration of visceral fat around the stomach and abdomen to such an extent that it is likely to harm its bearer's health. Abdominal obesity has been strongly linked to cardiovascular disease, Alzheimer's disease, and other metabolic and vascular diseases.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Obesity</span> Medical condition in which excess body fat harms health

Obesity is a medical condition, sometimes considered a disease, in which excess body fat has accumulated to such an extent that it can potentially have negative effects on health. People are classified as obese when their body mass index (BMI)—a person's weight divided by the square of the person's height—is over 30 kg/m2; the range 25–30 kg/m2 is defined as overweight. Some East Asian countries use lower values to calculate obesity. Obesity is a major cause of disability and is correlated with various diseases and conditions, particularly cardiovascular diseases, type 2 diabetes, obstructive sleep apnea, certain types of cancer, and osteoarthritis.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Leptin</span> Hormone that inhibits hunger

Leptin, also known as obese protein, is a protein hormone predominantly made by adipocytes. Its primary role is likely to regulate long-term energy balance.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Weight loss</span> Reduction of the total body mass

Weight loss, in the context of medicine, health, or physical fitness, refers to a reduction of the total body mass, by a mean loss of fluid, body fat, or lean mass. Weight loss can either occur unintentionally because of malnourishment or an underlying disease, or from a conscious effort to improve an actual or perceived overweight or obese state. "Unexplained" weight loss that is not caused by reduction in calorific intake or increase in exercise is called cachexia and may be a symptom of a serious medical condition.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Adipose tissue</span> Loose connective tissue composed mostly by adipocytes

Adipose tissue is a loose connective tissue composed mostly of adipocytes. It also contains the stromal vascular fraction (SVF) of cells including preadipocytes, fibroblasts, vascular endothelial cells and a variety of immune cells such as adipose tissue macrophages. Its main role is to store energy in the form of lipids, although it also cushions and insulates the body.

Thermogenesis is the process of heat production in organisms. It occurs in all warm-blooded animals, and also in a few species of thermogenic plants such as the Eastern skunk cabbage, the Voodoo lily, and the giant water lilies of the genus Victoria. The lodgepole pine dwarf mistletoe, Arceuthobium americanum, disperses its seeds explosively through thermogenesis.

Basal metabolic rate (BMR) is the rate of energy expenditure per unit time by endothermic animals at rest. It is reported in energy units per unit time ranging from watt (joule/second) to ml O2/min or joule per hour per kg body mass J/(h·kg). Proper measurement requires a strict set of criteria to be met. These criteria include being in a physically and psychologically undisturbed state and being in a thermally neutral environment while in the post-absorptive state (i.e., not actively digesting food). In bradymetabolic animals, such as fish and reptiles, the equivalent term standard metabolic rate (SMR) applies. It follows the same criteria as BMR, but requires the documentation of the temperature at which the metabolic rate was measured. This makes BMR a variant of standard metabolic rate measurement that excludes the temperature data, a practice that has led to problems in defining "standard" rates of metabolism for many mammals.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Adipocyte</span> Cells that primarily compose adipose tissue, specialized in storing energy as fat

Adipocytes, also known as lipocytes and fat cells, are the cells that primarily compose adipose tissue, specialized in storing energy as fat. Adipocytes are derived from mesenchymal stem cells which give rise to adipocytes through adipogenesis. In cell culture, adipocyte progenitors can also form osteoblasts, myocytes and other cell types.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Anti-obesity medication</span> Class of pharmacological agents

Anti-obesity medication or weight loss medications are pharmacological agents that reduce or control excess body fat. These medications alter one of the fundamental processes of the human body, weight regulation, by: reducing appetite and consequently energy intake, increasing energy expenditure, redirecting nutrients from adipose to lean tissue, or interfering with the absorption of calories.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Weight gain</span> Increase in a persons total body mass

Weight gain is an increase in body weight. This can involve an increase in muscle mass, fat deposits, excess fluids such as water or other factors. Weight gain can be a symptom of a serious medical condition.

Specific dynamic action (SDA), also known as thermic effect of food (TEF) or dietary induced thermogenesis (DIT), is the amount of energy expenditure above the basal metabolic rate due to the cost of processing food for use and storage. Heat production by brown adipose tissue which is activated after consumption of a meal is an additional component of dietary induced thermogenesis. The thermic effect of food is one of the components of metabolism along with resting metabolic rate and the exercise component. A commonly used estimate of the thermic effect of food is about 10% of one's caloric intake, though the effect varies substantially for different food components. For example, dietary fat is very easy to process and has very little thermic effect, while protein is hard to process and has a much larger thermic effect.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Underweight</span> Below a weight considered healthy

An underweight person is a person whose body weight is considered too low to be healthy. A person who is underweight is malnourished.

Starvation response in animals is a set of adaptive biochemical and physiological changes, triggered by lack of food or extreme weight loss, in which the body seeks to conserve energy by reducing metabolic rate and/or non-resting energy expenditure to prolong survival and preserve body fat and lean mass.

Intermittent fasting is any of various meal timing schedules that cycle between voluntary fasting and non-fasting over a given period. Methods of intermittent fasting include alternate-day fasting, periodic fasting, such as the 5:2 diet, and daily time-restricted eating.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Weight management</span> Techniques for maintaining body weight

Weight management refers to behaviors, techniques, and physiological processes that contribute to a person's ability to attain and maintain a healthy weight. Most weight management techniques encompass long-term lifestyle strategies that promote healthy eating and daily physical activity. Moreover, weight management involves developing meaningful ways to track weight over time and to identify the ideal body weights for different individuals.

A caloric deficit is any shortage in the number of calories consumed relative to the number of calories needed for maintenance of current body weight.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Antonio Vidal-Puig</span> Spanish medical doctor and scientist

Antonio Vidal-Puig is a Spanish medical doctor and scientist who works as a Professor of Molecular Nutrition and Metabolism at the University of Cambridge (UK), best known for advancing the concept that pharmacological targeting of brown fat may serve to treat overweight and obesity in affected individuals, as well as for introducing the concept of adipose tissue "expandability" as an important factor in the pathogenesis of insulin resistance in the context of positive energy balance. His published work focuses on areas such as adipose tissue metabolism and lipotoxicity, regulation of insulin secretion, and the pathophysiology of metabolic syndrome, obesity, and type 2 diabetes. In April 2024, he was granted the rank of doctor honoris causa from the King Juan Carlos University, Madrid.

The Summermatter cycle is a physiological concept describing the complex relationship between physical activity/inactivity and energy expenditure/conservation.

Paul Deurenberg is a Dutch retired academic, nutritional biochemist and consultant. He was a former associate professor in the Department of Human Nutrition at Wageningen University (WU), and is most known for his research expertise in the areas of energy metabolism, food consumption, and body composition studies.

Non-exercise activity thermogenesis (NEAT), also known as non-exercise physical activity (NEPA), is energy expenditure during activities that are not part of a structured exercise program. NEAT includes physical activity at the workplace, hobbies, standing instead of sitting, walking around, climbing stairs, doing chores, and fidgeting. Besides differences in body composition, it represents most of the variation in energy expenditure across individuals and populations, accounting from 6-10 percent to as much as 50 percent of energy expenditure in highly active individuals.

References

  1. 1 2 3 Comana, Fabio. "Resting Metabolic Rate: How to Calculate and Improve Yours". blog.nasm.org. Retrieved 15 October 2023.
  2. 1 2 3 Heymsfield, Steven B.; Smith, Brooke; Dahle, Jared; Kennedy, Samantha; Fearnbach, Nicole; Thomas, Diana M.; Bosy-Westphal, Anja; Müller, Manfred J. (March 2021). "Resting Energy Expenditure: From Cellular to Whole-Body Level, a Mechanistic Historical Perspective". Obesity. 29 (3): 500–511. doi:10.1002/oby.23090. PMID   33624441. S2CID   232021492.
  3. ↑ "Energy Balance: Totaling Up Energy Expenditure". Obesity Prevention Source. 21 October 2012. Retrieved 15 October 2023.
  4. ↑ Müller, Manfred J.; Enderle, Janna; Bosy-Westphal, Anja (1 December 2016). "Changes in Energy Expenditure with Weight Gain and Weight Loss in Humans". Current Obesity Reports. 5 (4): 413–423. doi: 10.1007/s13679-016-0237-4 . ISSN   2162-4968. PMC   5097076 . PMID   27739007.
  5. ↑ Schwartz, Alexander; Kuk, Jennifer L.; Lamothe, Gilles; Doucet, Éric (November 2012). "Greater Than Predicted Decrease in Resting Energy Expenditure and Weight Loss: Results From a Systematic Review". Obesity. 20 (11): 2307–2310. doi: 10.1038/oby.2012.34 . PMID   22327054.
  6. ↑ Washburn, R. A.; Lambourne, K.; Szabo, A. N.; Herrmann, S. D.; Honas, J. J.; Donnelly, J. E. (February 2014). "Does increased prescribed exercise alter non-exercise physical activity/energy expenditure in healthy adults? A systematic review". Clinical Obesity. 4 (1): 1–20. doi: 10.1111/cob.12040 . ISSN   1758-8103. PMC   5996763 . PMID   25425128.
  7. ↑ Wiklund, Petri (June 2016). "The role of physical activity and exercise in obesity and weight management: Time for critical appraisal". Journal of Sport and Health Science. 5 (2): 151–154. doi: 10.1016/j.jshs.2016.04.001 . PMC   6188737 . PMID   30356545.
  8. 1 2 Christoffersen, Berit Østergaard; Sanchez-Delgado, Guillermo; John, Linu Mary; Ryan, Donna H.; Raun, Kirsten; Ravussin, Eric (April 2022). "Beyond appetite regulation: Targeting energy expenditure, fat oxidation, and lean mass preservation for sustainable weight loss". Obesity. 30 (4): 841–857. doi:10.1002/oby.23374. ISSN   1930-7381. PMC   9310705 . PMID   35333444.
  9. ↑ Kumari, Sweta; Pal, Biplab; Sahu, Sanjeev Kumar; Prabhakar, Pranav Kumar; Tewari, Devesh (1 July 2023). "Adverse events of clenbuterol among athletes: a systematic review of case reports and case series". International Journal of Legal Medicine. 137 (4): 1023–1037. doi:10.1007/s00414-023-02996-1. ISSN   1437-1596. PMID   37062796. S2CID   258178293.
  10. ↑ Singh, Raghunath; Bansal, Yashika; Medhi, Bikash; Kuhad, Anurag (February 2019). "Antipsychotics-induced metabolic alterations: Recounting the mechanistic insights, therapeutic targets and pharmacological alternatives". European Journal of Pharmacology. 844: 231–240. doi:10.1016/j.ejphar.2018.12.003. PMID   30529195. S2CID   54482216.
  11. ↑ Cuerda, C.; Velasco, C.; Merchán-Naranjo, J.; García-Peris, P.; Arango, C. (February 2014). "The effects of second-generation antipsychotics on food intake, resting energy expenditure and physical activity". European Journal of Clinical Nutrition. 68 (2): 146–152. doi: 10.1038/ejcn.2013.253 . ISSN   1476-5640. PMID   24327118.
  12. ↑ Blundell, John E; Gibbons, Catherine; Beaulieu, Kristine; Casanova, Nuno; Duarte, Cristiana; Finlayson, Graham; Stubbs, R James; Hopkins, Mark (May 2020). "The drive to eat in homo sapiens: Energy expenditure drives energy intake" (PDF). Physiology & Behavior. 219: 112846. doi:10.1016/j.physbeh.2020.112846. PMID   32081814. S2CID   211141215.
  13. ↑ Mazzo, Rafaela; Ribeiro, Francieli Barreiro; Vasques, Ana Carolina Junqueira (February 2020). "Accuracy of predictive equations versus indirect calorimetry for the evaluation of energy expenditure in cancer patients with solid tumors – An integrative systematic review study". Clinical Nutrition ESPEN. 35: 12–19. doi:10.1016/j.clnesp.2019.11.001. PMID   31987104. S2CID   210935787.
  14. ↑ Genton, L.; Viatte, V.; Janssens, J. -P.; Héritier, A. -C.; Pichard, C. (1 October 2011). "Nutritional state, energy intakes and energy expenditure of amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS) patients". Clinical Nutrition. 30 (5): 553–559. doi:10.1016/j.clnu.2011.06.004. ISSN   0261-5614. PMID   21798636.
  15. ↑ Santos, Bárbara Chaves; Correia, Maria Isabel Toulson Davisson; Anastácio, Lucilene Rezende (March 2021). "Energy Expenditure and Liver Transplantation: What We Know and Where We Are". Journal of Parenteral and Enteral Nutrition. 45 (3): 456–464. doi: 10.1002/jpen.1985 . hdl: 1843/40766 . PMID   32744332.
  16. ↑ Cioffi, Iolanda; Marra, Maurizio; Pasanisi, Fabrizio; Scalfi, Luca (May 2021). "Prediction of resting energy expenditure in healthy older adults: A systematic review". Clinical Nutrition. 40 (5): 3094–3103. doi: 10.1016/j.clnu.2020.11.027 . hdl: 2434/953871 . PMID   33288302.
  17. ↑ Macena, Mateus de Lima; Paula, Déborah Tenório da Costa; da Silva Júnior, André Eduardo; Praxedes, Dafiny Rodrigues Silva; Pureza, Isabele Rejane de Oliveira Maranhão; de Melo, Ingrid Sofia Vieira; Bueno, Nassib Bezerra (10 October 2022). "Estimates of resting energy expenditure and total energy expenditure using predictive equations in adults with overweight and obesity: a systematic review with meta-analysis". Nutrition Reviews. 80 (11): 2113–2135. doi: 10.1093/nutrit/nuac031 . PMID   35551409.
  18. ↑ O’Driscoll, Ruairi; Turicchi, Jake; Beaulieu, Kristine; Scott, Sarah; Matu, Jamie; Deighton, Kevin; Finlayson, Graham; Stubbs, James (1 March 2020). "How well do activity monitors estimate energy expenditure? A systematic review and meta-analysis of the validity of current technologies". British Journal of Sports Medicine. 54 (6): 332–340. doi: 10.1136/bjsports-2018-099643 . ISSN   0306-3674. PMID   30194221.
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