Exemplification theory

Last updated

Exemplification theory is a theory that states that an event is the exemplification of a property in an entity. This identity is often modeled as an "ordered triple" of an entity, property type, and time. [1]

Contents

Overview

Much of exemplification theory is based on logic arguing that there are evolutionary advantages that stem from the ability to group events together. Humans do this by sifting through experiences to group those that seem to go together and coding the occurrence of events in a quantitative manner that allows them to make judgments (most often nonconsciously) of how frequently different events occur. [2] These judgments are considered based on two cognitive devices: the availability heuristic and the representativeness heuristic.

The availability heuristic tells us that judgments of social phenomena are greatly influenced by the ease with which information comes to mind. [3] Availability heuristics can be a useful tool for assessing frequency or probability of an event. [4] Individuals that employ the availability heuristic evaluate the frequency of events based on the quickness with which pertinent instances come to mind. [5]

The representativeness heuristic is a special case of availability. It stipulates that abstract base-rate information plays little role in quantitative judgments about event populations. Instead, these judgments are based on the sample of more concrete exemplars that are available to the individual at the time of decision making. Exemplification theory is a simple combination of these heuristics. It posits that since exemplars come to mind more easily than base-rates when accessing information, available exemplars will dominate base-rate information when making judgments of event populations. [6]

Behavioral intentions are the direct determinants of behaviors. [7] Much of this research focuses on the manipulation of attitudes, subjective norms, and/or behavioral control with the message having a direct impact on receivers based on the information provided and the presentation of base-rates and exemplars. Exemplification theory examines the role of base-rates and exemplars in communication messages. [8] Individuals pay attention to (and are more influenced by) exemplars than by base-rate data. [3] Base-rates are not always inconsequential. [8]

Criticism in the 1980s rejected exemplificationism, charging that it ultimately conflates events with facts. [9] [10] Since then, exemplificationism has lost almost all of its previous popularity.

Exemplars and base-rates

An exemplar is an instance of an event population that shares essential features with all other instances from the group of events that is defined by those features. In a sense, exemplars are case reports used to represent characteristics typical of a group of event. [11] Commonly, exemplars are illustrative representations of information. An exemplar will provide a demonstration of an event.

Exemplars used in conjunction with base-rates as case illustrations of event populations to enhance or detract from given base-rate information as the salient features of the exemplar are representative of the event population. [12] As with news reports, exemplars are often added to provide a description of an event being discussed within a report and are chosen for their entertaining qualities. [13]

Base-rates present descriptions limited to certain general features of the event population. Base-rate information often comes in the form of a numerical representation such as the frequency with which an event occurs. Typically it is thought of as quantitative information about population events [14] or a general description of the number of things or people in the setting. [5]

Base-rates are said to be less illustrative or vivid than exemplar information. They have not been examined as often as exemplars. [15] They are overwhelmed by exemplars in many circumstances, [16] it does not appear that they are always ignored. Prior investigations suggest that base-rates are perceived by decision makers as more reliable and can influence decisional confidence more than exemplars. [17] Base-rates are perceived as more truthful, [8] precise, [5] and accurate [18] than exemplars. Nevertheless, recent research has shown that exemplification effects are prone to other perceptual phenomena. [19]

Some research suggests several disadvantages to the use of exemplars, particularly in relation to perceptual bias that might result from their use. Exemplars are also said to play a role in perpetuating negative stereotypes, and in isolation are frequently found to be inefficient sources of information. [20]

Exemplar information has largely been found to be less reliable than base-rate information. In part, because it is seldom collected or presented in a systematic manner. [13]

Exemplification research demonstrates that individuals often base their assessment of social reality more strongly on attributes of the exemplars selected for inclusion in media reports than statistical representations of information. This has been found problematic when the exemplar is atypical and chosen for its entertaining or sensational qualities, a common occurrence within news stories.

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Cognitive bias</span> Systematic pattern of deviation from norm or rationality in judgment

A cognitive bias is a systematic pattern of deviation from norm or rationality in judgment. Individuals create their own "subjective reality" from their perception of the input. An individual's construction of reality, not the objective input, may dictate their behavior in the world. Thus, cognitive biases may sometimes lead to perceptual distortion, inaccurate judgment, illogical interpretation, and irrationality.

A heuristic or heuristic technique is any approach to problem solving that employs a pragmatic method that is not fully optimized, perfected, or rationalized, but is nevertheless "good enough" as an approximation or attribute substitution. Where finding an optimal solution is impossible or impractical, heuristic methods can be used to speed up the process of finding a satisfactory solution. Heuristics can be mental shortcuts that ease the cognitive load of making a decision.

Heuristic reasoning is often based on induction, or on analogy ... Induction is the process of discovering general laws  ... Induction tries to find regularity and coherence ... Its most conspicuous instruments are generalization, specialization, analogy. [...] Heuristic discusses human behavior in the face of problems [... that have been] preserved in the wisdom of proverbs.

Bounded rationality is the idea that rationality is limited when individuals make decisions, and under these limitations, rational individuals will select a decision that is satisfactory rather than optimal.

The availability heuristic, also known as availability bias, is a mental shortcut that relies on immediate examples that come to a given person's mind when evaluating a specific topic, concept, method, or decision. This heuristic, operating on the notion that, if something can be recalled, it must be important, or at least more important than alternative solutions not as readily recalled, is inherently biased toward recently acquired information.

Uses and gratifications theory is a communication theory that describes the reasons and means by which people seek out media to meet specific needs. The theory postulates that media is a highly available product, that audiences are the consumers of the product, and that audiences choose media to satisfy given needs as well as social and psychological uses, such as knowledge, relaxation, social relationships, and diversion.

The representativeness heuristic is used when making judgments about the probability of an event being representional in character and essence of a known prototypical event. It is one of a group of heuristics proposed by psychologists Amos Tversky and Daniel Kahneman in the early 1970s as "the degree to which [an event] (i) is similar in essential characteristics to its parent population, and (ii) reflects the salient features of the process by which it is generated". The representativeness heuristic works by comparing an event to a prototype or stereotype that we already have in mind. For example, if we see a person who is dressed in eccentric clothes and reading a poetry book, we might be more likely to think that they are a poet than an accountant. This is because the person's appearance and behavior are more representative of the stereotype of a poet than an accountant.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Gerd Gigerenzer</span> German cognitive psychologist

Gerd Gigerenzer is a German psychologist who has studied the use of bounded rationality and heuristics in decision making. Gigerenzer is director emeritus of the Center for Adaptive Behavior and Cognition (ABC) at the Max Planck Institute for Human Development, Berlin, director of the Harding Center for Risk Literacy, University of Potsdam, and vice president of the European Research Council (ERC).

Attitudes are associated beliefs and behaviors towards some object. They are not stable, and because of the communication and behavior of other people, are subject to change by social influences, as well as by the individual's motivation to maintain cognitive consistency when cognitive dissonance occurs—when two attitudes or attitude and behavior conflict. Attitudes and attitude objects are functions of affective and cognitive components. It has been suggested that the inter-structural composition of an associative network can be altered by the activation of a single node. Thus, by activating an affective or emotional node, attitude change may be possible, though affective and cognitive components tend to be intertwined.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Risk perception</span>

Risk perception is the subjective judgement that people make about the characteristics and severity of a risk. Risk perceptions often differ from statistical assessments of risk since they are affected by a wide range of affective, cognitive, contextual, and individual factors. Several theories have been proposed to explain why different people make different estimates of the dangerousness of risks. Three major families of theory have been developed: psychology approaches, anthropology/sociology approaches and interdisciplinary approaches.

The affect heuristic is a heuristic, a mental shortcut that allows people to make decisions and solve problems quickly and efficiently, in which current emotion—fear, pleasure, surprise, etc.—influences decisions. In other words, it is a type of heuristic in which emotional response, or "affect" in psychological terms, plays a lead role. It is a subconscious process that shortens the decision-making process and allows people to function without having to complete an extensive search for information. It is shorter in duration than a mood, occurring rapidly and involuntarily in response to a stimulus. Reading the words "lung cancer" usually generates an affect of dread, while reading the words "mother's love" usually generates a feeling of affection and comfort. The affect heuristic is typically used while judging the risks and benefits of something, depending on the positive or negative feelings that people associate with a stimulus. It is the equivalent of "going with your gut". If their feelings towards an activity are positive, then people are more likely to judge the risks as low and the benefits high. On the other hand, if their feelings towards an activity are negative, they are more likely to perceive the risks as high and benefits low.

The social distance corollary is a theory in communication research that concerns the tendency of people to perceive others to be more susceptible to media influence than they actually are.

Implicit personality theory describes the specific patterns and biases an individual uses when forming impressions based on a limited amount of initial information about an unfamiliar person. While there are parts of the impression formation process that are context-dependent, individuals also tend to exhibit certain tendencies in forming impressions across a variety of situations. There is not one singular implicit personality theory utilized by all; rather, each individual approaches the task of impression formation in his or her own unique way. However, there are some components of implicit personality theories that are consistent across individuals, or within groups of similar individuals. These components are of particular interest to social psychologists because they have the potential to give insight into what impression one person will form of another.

Mood management theory posits that the consumption of messages, particularly entertaining messages, is capable of altering prevailing mood states, and that the selection of specific messages for consumption often serves the regulation of mood states. Mood management theory now belongs to a larger group of theoretical approaches which speak on media content and how it plays a role in mood management. Mood optimization is a current affective sate of media mood management.

Reinforcement theory is a limited effects media model applicable within the realm of communication. The theory generally states that people seek out and remember information that provides cognitive support for their pre-existing attitudes and beliefs. The main assumption that guides this theory is that people do not like to be wrong and often feel uncomfortable when their beliefs are challenged.

Heuristics is the process by which humans use mental shortcuts to arrive at decisions. Heuristics are simple strategies that humans, animals, organizations, and even machines use to quickly form judgments, make decisions, and find solutions to complex problems. Often this involves focusing on the most relevant aspects of a problem or situation to formulate a solution. While heuristic processes are used to find the answers and solutions that are most likely to work or be correct, they are not always right or the most accurate. Judgments and decisions based on heuristics are simply good enough to satisfy a pressing need in situations of uncertainty, where information is incomplete. In that sense they can differ from answers given by logic and probability.

The heuristic-systematic model of information processing (HSM) is a widely recognized model by Shelly Chaiken that attempts to explain how people receive and process persuasive messages.

Affective disposition theory (ADT), in its simplest form, states that media and entertainment users make moral judgments about characters in a narrative which in turn affects their enjoyment of the narrative. This theory was first posited by Zillmann and Cantor (1977), and many offshoots have followed in various areas of entertainment. Entertainment users make constant judgments of a character's actions, and these judgments enable the user to determine which character they believe is the "good guy" or the "villain". However, in an article written in 2004, Raney examined the fundamental ADT assumption that viewers of drama always form their dispositions toward characters through moral judgment of motives and conduct. Raney argued that viewers/consumers of entertainment media could form positive dispositions toward characters before any moral scrutinizing occurs. He proposed that viewers sometimes develop story schemas that provide them "with the cognitive pegs upon which to hang their initial interpretations and expectations of characters". The basic idea of the affective disposition theory is used as a way to explain how emotions become part of the entertainment experience.

Intuition in the context of decision-making is defined as a "non-sequential information-processing mode." It is distinct from insight and can be contrasted with the deliberative style of decision-making. Intuition can influence judgment through either emotion or cognition, and there has been some suggestion that it may be a means of bridging the two. Individuals use intuition and more deliberative decision-making styles interchangeably, but there has been some evidence that people tend to gravitate to one or the other style more naturally. People in a good mood gravitate toward intuitive styles, while people in a bad mood tend to become more deliberative. The specific ways in which intuition actually influences decisions remain poorly understood.

Social heuristics are simple decision making strategies that guide people's behavior and decisions in the social environment when time, information, or cognitive resources are scarce. Social environments tend to be characterised by complexity and uncertainty, and in order to simplify the decision-making process, people may use heuristics, which are decision making strategies that involve ignoring some information or relying on simple rules of thumb.

References

  1. ↑ Hendrickson, N. (2006, May 15). Towards a More Plausible Exemplification Theory of Events. Philosophical Studies, 129(2), 349–375.
  2. ↑ Zillmann, D. (2000). Mood management in the context of selective exposure theory. In M. Roloff (Ed.), Communication Yearbook 23 (pp. 103–123). Thousand Oaks: Sage Publications, Inc.
  3. 1 2 Gibson, R. & Zillmann, D. (1998). Effects of citation in exemplifying testimony on issue perception. Journalism & Mass Communication Quarterly, 75, 1, 167–176.
  4. ↑ Rothbart, M., Fulero, S., Jensen, C., Howard, J., & Birrell, P. (1978). From individual to group impressions: Availability heuristics in stereotype formation. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 14, 237–255.
  5. 1 2 3 Zillmann, D., Gibson, R., Sundar, S.S., & Perkins, J.W. (1996). Effects of exemplification in news reports on the perception of social issues. Journalism and Mass Communication Quarterly, 73, 2, 427.
  6. ↑ Worrell, T.R. & Tamborini R. (2009). The TV made me do it: The impact of exemplars and base- rates on behavioral intentions. A paper presented at the 95th meeting of the National Communication Association, Chicago, IL.
  7. ↑ Ajzen, I. & Fishbein, M. (1980). Understanding attitudes and predicting social behavior. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall.
  8. 1 2 3 Zillmann, D. (2002). Exemplification theory of media influence. In J. Bryant & D. Zillmann (Eds.), Media effects: Advances in theory and research (pp. 19–41). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
  9. ↑ 10. Bennett, J. (1988): Events and Their Names. Hackett Publishing Company. Goldman, A. (1970): A Theory of Human Action. Prentice Hall.
  10. ↑ Lombard, L. (1986): Events: A Metaphysical Study. Routledge & Kegan Paul.
  11. ↑ 12. Zillmann, D. & Brosius, H.B. (2000). Exemplification in Communication: The influence of case reports on the perception of issues. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
  12. ↑ Brosius, H.B. & Bathelt, A. (1994). The utility of exemplars in persuasive communications. Communication Research, 21, 1, 48–79.
  13. 1 2 Gibson, R. & Zillmann, D. (1994). Exaggerated versus representative exemplification in news reports. Communication Research, 21, 5, 603–625.
  14. ↑ Zillmann, D. & Brosius, H.B. (2000). Exemplification in Communication: The influence of case reports on the perception of issues. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
  15. ↑ Koehler, J.J. (1996). The base rate fallacy reconsidered: descriptive, normative, and methodological challenges. Behavioral and Brain Sciences, 19, 1, 1–54.
  16. ↑ Berger, C.R. (2000). Quantitative depictions of threatening phenomena in news reports: The scary world of frequency data. Human Communication Research, 26, 1, 27–52.
  17. ↑ Adler, J.E. (1997). If the base rate fallacy is a fallacy, does it matter how frequently it is committed? Behavioral and Brain Sciences, 20, 4, 774–776.
  18. ↑ Zillmann, D., Perkins, J.W., & Sundar, S.S. (1992). Impression formation effects of printed news varying in descriptive precision and exemplification. Medienpsychologie, 4, 168–185.
  19. ↑ Scherr, S., Müller, P., & Fast, V. (2013). Do third-person perceptions amplify exemplification effects? International Journal of Communication, 7, 1603–1621.
  20. ↑ Sherman, J.W. (1996). Development and mental representation of stereotypes. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 70, 6, 1126–1142.
This page is based on this Wikipedia article
Text is available under the CC BY-SA 4.0 license; additional terms may apply.
Images, videos and audio are available under their respective licenses.