Exemplification theory

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Exemplification theory is a theory that states that an event is the exemplification of a property in an entity. This identity is often modeled as an "ordered triple" of an entity, property type, and time. [1]

Contents

Overview

Much of exemplification theory is based on logic arguing that there are evolutionary advantages that stem from the ability to group events together. Humans do this by sifting through experiences to group those that seem to go together and coding the occurrence of events in a quantitative manner that allows them to make judgments (most often nonconsciously) of how frequently different events occur. [2] These judgments are considered based on two cognitive devices: the availability heuristic and the representativeness heuristic.

The availability heuristic tells us that judgments of social phenomena are greatly influenced by the ease with which information comes to mind. [3] Availability heuristics can be a useful tool for assessing frequency or probability of an event. [4] Individuals that employ the availability heuristic evaluate the frequency of events based on the quickness with which pertinent instances come to mind. [5]

The representativeness heuristic is a special case of availability. It stipulates that abstract base-rate information plays little role in quantitative judgments about event populations. Instead, these judgments are based on the sample of more concrete exemplars that are available to the individual at the time of decision making. Exemplification theory is a simple combination of these heuristics. It posits that since exemplars come to mind more easily than base-rates when accessing information, available exemplars will dominate base-rate information when making judgments of event populations. [6]

Behavioral intentions are the direct determinants of behaviors. [7] Much of this research focuses on the manipulation of attitudes, subjective norms, and/or behavioral control with the message having a direct impact on receivers based on the information provided and the presentation of base-rates and exemplars. Exemplification theory examines the role of base-rates and exemplars in communication messages. [8] Individuals pay attention to (and are more influenced by) exemplars than by base-rate data. [3] Base-rates are not always inconsequential. [8]

Criticism in the 1980s rejected exemplificationism, charging that it ultimately conflates events with facts. [9] [10] Since then, exemplificationism has lost almost all of its previous popularity.

Exemplars and base-rates

An exemplar is an instance of an event population that shares essential features with all other instances from the group of events that is defined by those features. In a sense, exemplars are case reports used to represent characteristics typical of a group of event. [11] Commonly, exemplars are illustrative representations of information. An exemplar will provide a demonstration of an event.

Exemplars used in conjunction with base-rates as case illustrations of event populations to enhance or detract from given base-rate information as the salient features of the exemplar are representative of the event population. [12] As with news reports, exemplars are often added to provide a description of an event being discussed within a report and are chosen for their entertaining qualities. [13]

Base-rates present descriptions limited to certain general features of the event population. Base-rate information often comes in the form of a numerical representation such as the frequency with which an event occurs. Typically it is thought of as quantitative information about population events [14] or a general description of the number of things or people in the setting. [5]

Base-rates are said to be less illustrative or vivid than exemplar information. They have not been examined as often as exemplars. [15] They are overwhelmed by exemplars in many circumstances, [16] it does not appear that they are always ignored. Prior investigations suggest that base-rates are perceived by decision makers as more reliable and can influence decisional confidence more than exemplars. [17] Base-rates are perceived as more truthful, [8] precise, [5] and accurate [18] than exemplars. Nevertheless, recent research has shown that exemplification effects are prone to other perceptual phenomena. [19]

Some research suggests several disadvantages to the use of exemplars, particularly in relation to perceptual bias that might result from their use. Exemplars are also said to play a role in perpetuating negative stereotypes, and in isolation are frequently found to be inefficient sources of information. [20]

Exemplar information has largely been found to be less reliable than base-rate information. In part, because it is seldom collected or presented in a systematic manner. [13]

Exemplification research demonstrates that individuals often base their assessment of social reality more strongly on attributes of the exemplars selected for inclusion in media reports than statistical representations of information. This has been found problematic when the exemplar is atypical and chosen for its entertaining or sensational qualities, a common occurrence within news stories.

Related Research Articles

A cognitive bias is a systematic pattern of deviation from norm or rationality in judgment. Individuals create their own "subjective reality" from their perception of the input. An individual's construction of reality, not the objective input, may dictate their behavior in the world. Thus, cognitive biases may sometimes lead to perceptual distortion, inaccurate judgment, illogical interpretation, or what is broadly called irrationality.

A heuristictechnique, or a heuristic, is any approach to problem solving or self-discovery that employs a practical method that is not guaranteed to be optimal, perfect, or rational, but is nevertheless sufficient for reaching an immediate, short-term goal or approximation. Where finding an optimal solution is impossible or impractical, heuristic methods can be used to speed up the process of finding a satisfactory solution. Heuristics can be mental shortcuts that ease the cognitive load of making a decision.

The availability heuristic, also known as availability bias, is a mental shortcut that relies on immediate examples that come to a given person's mind when evaluating a specific topic, concept, method or decision. The availability heuristic operates on the notion that if something can be recalled, it must be important, or at least more important than alternative solutions which are not as readily recalled. Subsequently, under the availability heuristic, people tend to heavily weigh their judgments toward more recent information, making new opinions biased toward that latest news.

Uses and gratifications theory (UGT) is an approach to understanding why and how people actively seek out specific media to satisfy specific needs. UGT is an audience-centered approach to understanding mass communication. Diverging from other media effect theories that question "what does media do to people?", UGT focuses on "what do people do with media?" It postulates that media is a highly available product and the audiences are the consumers of the same product.

The representativeness heuristic is used when making judgments about the probability of an event under uncertainty. It is one of a group of heuristics proposed by psychologists Amos Tversky and Daniel Kahneman in the early 1970s as "the degree to which [an event] (i) is similar in essential characteristics to its parent population, and (ii) reflects the salient features of the process by which it is generated". Heuristics are described as "judgmental shortcuts that generally get us where we need to go – and quickly – but at the cost of occasionally sending us off course." Heuristics are useful because they use effort-reduction and simplification in decision-making.

Gerd Gigerenzer German cognitive psychologist

Gerd Gigerenzer is a German psychologist who has studied the use of bounded rationality and heuristics in decision making. Gigerenzer is director emeritus of the Center for Adaptive Behavior and Cognition (ABC) at the Max Planck Institute for Human Development and director of the Harding Center for Risk Literacy, both in Berlin, Germany.

Attitudes are associated beliefs and behaviors towards some object. They are not stable, and because of the communication and behavior of other people, are subject to change by social influences, as well as by the individual's motivation to maintain cognitive consistency when cognitive dissonance occurs—when two attitudes or attitude and behavior conflict. Attitudes and attitude objects are functions of affective and cognitive components. It has been suggested that the inter-structural composition of an associative network can be altered by the activation of a single node. Thus, by activating an affective or emotional node, attitude change may be possible, though affective and cognitive components tend to be intertwined.

Risk perception is the subjective judgement that people make about the characteristics and severity of a risk. The phrase is most commonly used in reference to natural hazards and threats to the environment or health, such as nuclear power. Several theories have been proposed to explain why different people make different estimates of the dangerousness of risks. Three major families of theory have been developed: psychology approaches, anthropology/sociology approaches and interdisciplinary approaches.

The affect heuristic is a heuristic, a mental shortcut that allows people to make decisions and solve problems quickly and efficiently, in which current emotion—fear, pleasure, surprise, etc.—influences decisions. In other words, it is a type of heuristic in which emotional response, or "affect" in psychological terms, plays a lead role. It is a subconscious process that shortens the decision-making process and allows people to function without having to complete an extensive search for information. It is shorter in duration than a mood, occurring rapidly and involuntarily in response to a stimulus. Reading the words "lung cancer" usually generates an affect of dread, while reading the words "mother's love" usually generates a feeling of affection and comfort. The affect heuristic is typically used while judging the risks and benefits of something, depending on the positive or negative feelings that people associate with a stimulus. It is the equivalent of "going with your gut". If their feelings towards an activity are positive, then people are more likely to judge the risks as low and the benefits high. On the other hand, if their feelings towards an activity are negative, they are more likely to perceive the risks as high and benefits low.

The Social Distance Corollary is a theory in communication research that concerns the tendency of people to perceive others to be more susceptible to media influence than they actually are.

Media psychology is the branch and specialty field in psychology that focuses on the interaction human behavior and media and technology. Media psychology is not limited to mass media or media content; it includes all forms of mediated communication and media technology-related behaviors, such as the use, design, impact and sharing behaviors. This branch is a relatively new field of study because of advancement in technology. It uses various methods of critical analysis and investigation to develop a working model of a user's perception on media experience. These methods are used for society as a whole and on an individual basis. Media psychologists are able to perform activities that include consulting, design, and production in various media like television, video games, films, and news broadcasting. Media psychologists are not considered to be those who are featured in media, rather than those who research, work or contribute to the field.

Social perception is the study of how people form impressions of and make inferences about other people as sovereign personalities. Social perception refers to identifying and utilizing social cues to make judgments about social roles, rules, relationships, context, or the characteristics of others. This domain also includes social knowledge, which refers to one’s knowledge of social roles, norms, and schemas surrounding social situations and interactions. People learn about others' feelings and emotions by picking up information they gather from physical appearance, verbal, and nonverbal communication. Facial expressions, tone of voice, hand gestures, and body position or movement are a few examples of ways people communicate without words. A real-world example of social perception is understanding that others disagree with what one said when one sees them roll their eyes. There are four main components of social perception: observation, attribution, integration, and confirmation.

Mood management theory posits that the consumption of messages, particularly entertaining messages, is capable of altering prevailing mood states, and that the selection of specific messages for consumption often serves the regulation of mood states.

Reinforcement theory is a limited effects media model applicable within the realm of communication. The theory generally states that people seek out and remember information that provides cognitive support for their pre-existing attitudes and beliefs. The main assumption that guides this theory is that people do not like to be wrong and often feel uncomfortable when their beliefs are challenged.

Excitation-transfer theory purports that residual excitation from one stimulus will amplify the excitatory response to another stimulus, though the hedonic valences of the stimuli may differ. The excitation-transfer process is not limited to a single emotion. For example, when watching a movie, a viewer may be angered by seeing the hero wronged by the villain, but this initial excitation may intensify the viewer's pleasure in witnessing the villain's punishment later. Thus, although the excitation from the original stimulus of seeing the hero wronged was cognitively accessed as anger, the excitation after the second stimulus of seeing the villain punished is cognitively assessed as pleasure, though part of the excitation from the second stimulus is residual from the first.
However, the excitation-transfer process requires the presence of three conditions. One: the second stimulus occurs before the complete decay of residual excitation from the first stimulus. Two: there is the misattribution of excitation, that is, after exposure to the second stimulus, the individual experiencing the excitation attributes full excitation to the second stimulus. Three: the individual has not reached an excitatory threshold before exposure to the second stimulus.

Heuristics are simple strategies or mental processes that humans, animals, organizations and machines use to quickly form judgments, make decisions, and find solutions to complex problems. This happens when an individual focuses on the most relevant aspects of a problem or situation to formulate a solution.

The heuristic-systematic model of information processing (HSM) is a widely recognized communication model by Shelly Chaiken that attempts to explain how people receive and process persuasive messages. The model states that individuals can process messages in one of two ways: heuristically or systematically. Whereas systematic processing entails careful and deliberative processing of a message, heuristic processing entails the use of simplifying decision rules or ‘heuristics’ to quickly assess the message content. The guiding belief with this model is that individuals are more apt to minimize their use of cognitive resources, thus affecting the intake and processing of messages. HSM predicts that processing type will influence the extent to which a person is persuaded or exhibits lasting attitude change. HSM is quite similar to the elaboration likelihood model, or ELM. Both models were predominantly developed in the early to mid-1980s and share many of the same concepts and ideas.

Affective disposition theory (ADT), in its simplest form, states that media and entertainment users make moral judgments about characters in a narrative which in turn affects their enjoyment of the narrative. This theory was first posited by Zillmann and Cantor (1977), and many offshoots have followed in various areas of entertainment. Entertainment users make constant judgments of a character's actions, and these judgments enable the user to determine which character they believe is the "good guy" or the "villain". However, in an article written in 2004, Raney examined the fundamental ADT assumption that viewers of drama always form their dispositions toward characters through moral judgment of motives and conduct. Raney argued that viewers/consumers of entertainment media could form positive dispositions toward characters before any moral scrutinizing occurs. He proposed that viewers sometimes develop story schemas that provide them "with the cognitive pegs upon which to hang their initial interpretations and expectations of characters". The basic idea of the affective disposition theory is used as a way to explain how emotions become part of the entertainment experience.

Intuition in the context of decision-making is defined as a “non-sequential information-processing mode.” It is distinct from insight and can be contrasted with the deliberative style of decision-making. Intuition can influence judgment through either emotion or cognition, and there has been some suggestion that it may be a means of bridging the two. Individuals use intuition and more deliberative decision-making styles interchangeably, but there has been some evidence that people tend to gravitate to one or the other style more naturally. People in a good mood gravitate toward intuitive styles, while people in a bad mood tend to become more deliberative. The specific ways in which intuition actually influences decisions remain poorly understood. Snap judgments made possible by heuristics are sometimes identified as intuition.

Jennings Bryant was Distinguished Professor Emeritus at The University of Alabama (UA). Prior to his retirement in 2010, he was Communication and Information Sciences Distinguished Research Professor, holder of the Reagan Endowed Chair of Broadcasting, and Associate Dean for Graduate Studies and Research at UA. Jennings Bryant was married to Sara Poteat Bryant for 43 years. He and Sara were the parents of three children. The Bryants lived on a family farm in the Mountain Valley Rural Agricultural Historical District in Glenwood, NC.

References

  1. ↑ Hendrickson, N. (2006, May 15). Towards a More Plausible Exemplification Theory of Events. Philosophical Studies, 129(2), 349–375.
  2. ↑ Zillmann, D. (2000). Mood management in the context of selective exposure theory. In M. Roloff (Ed.), Communication Yearbook 23 (pp. 103–123). Thousand Oaks: Sage Publications, Inc.
  3. 1 2 Gibson, R. & Zillmann, D. (1998). Effects of citation in exemplifying testimony on issue perception. Journalism & Mass Communication Quarterly, 75, 1, 167–176.
  4. ↑ Rothbart, M., Fulero, S., Jensen, C., Howard, J., & Birrell, P. (1978). From individual to group impressions: Availability heuristics in stereotype formation. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 14, 237–255.
  5. 1 2 3 Zillmann, D., Gibson, R., Sundar, S.S., & Perkins, J.W. (1996). Effects of exemplification in news reports on the perception of social issues. Journalism and Mass Communication Quarterly, 73, 2, 427.
  6. ↑ Worrell, T.R. & Tamborini R. (2009). The TV made me do it: The impact of exemplars and base- rates on behavioral intentions. A paper presented at the 95th meeting of the National Communication Association, Chicago, IL.
  7. ↑ Ajzen, I. & Fishbein, M. (1980). Understanding attitudes and predicting social behavior. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall.
  8. 1 2 3 Zillmann, D. (2002). Exemplification theory of media influence. In J. Bryant & D. Zillmann (Eds.), Media effects: Advances in theory and research (pp. 19–41). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
  9. ↑ 10. Bennett, J. (1988): Events and Their Names. Hackett Publishing Company. Goldman, A. (1970): A Theory of Human Action. Prentice Hall.
  10. ↑ Lombard, L. (1986): Events: A Metaphysical Study. Routledge & Kegan Paul.
  11. ↑ 12. Zillmann, D. & Brosius, H.B. (2000). Exemplification in Communication: The influence of case reports on the perception of issues. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
  12. ↑ Brosius, H.B. & Bathelt, A. (1994). The utility of exemplars in persuasive communications. Communication Research, 21, 1, 48–79.
  13. 1 2 Gibson, R. & Zillmann, D. (1994). Exaggerated versus representative exemplification in news reports. Communication Research, 21, 5, 603–625.
  14. ↑ Zillmann, D. & Brosius, H.B. (2000). Exemplification in Communication: The influence of case reports on the perception of issues. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
  15. ↑ Koehler, J.J. (1996). The base rate fallacy reconsidered: descriptive, normative, and methodological challenges. Behavioral and Brain Sciences, 19, 1, 1–54.
  16. ↑ Berger, C.R. (2000). Quantitative depictions of threatening phenomena in news reports: The scary world of frequency data. Human Communication Research, 26, 1, 27–52.
  17. ↑ Adler, J.E. (1997). If the base rate fallacy is a fallacy, does it matter how frequently it is committed? Behavioral and Brain Sciences, 20, 4, 774–776.
  18. ↑ Zillmann, D., Perkins, J.W., & Sundar, S.S. (1992). Impression formation effects of printed news varying in descriptive precision and exemplification. Medienpsychologie, 4, 168–185.
  19. ↑ Scherr, S., Müller, P., & Fast, V. (2013). Do third-person perceptions amplify exemplification effects? International Journal of Communication, 7, 1603–1621.
  20. ↑ Sherman, J.W. (1996). Development and mental representation of stereotypes. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 70, 6, 1126–1142.
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