Food Cravings Questionnaires

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The Food Cravings Questionnaires (FCQs) are among the most widely used self-report questionnaires for measuring food craving. [1] [2] [3] [4] They were developed by Antonio Cepeda-Benito and colleagues in 2000. [5] For the 39-item trait version (FCQ-T), respondents indicate how frequently each statement is true for them in general on a six-point scale with 1 = never/not applicable, 2 = rarely, 3 = sometimes, 4 = often, 5 = usually, and 6 = always. For the 15-item state version (FCQ-S), respondents indicate the extent to which they agree with each statement right now, at this very moment, on a five-point scale with 1 = strongly disagree, 2 = disagree, 3 = neutral, 4 = agree, 5 = strongly agree.

Contents

Scoring

The FCQs were designed to assess the multidimensional nature of food craving and, thus, assess several aspects such as emotions before a food craving is experienced or before eating, affective responses after eating, thoughts about food, or loss of control over food consumption. For the FCQ-T, these aspects are reflected in 9 subscales. To calculate a subscale score, item responses of each subscale are added up to sum scores as indicated in the table below. A total score of the FCQ-T can also be calculated by summing up all 39 items. No items have to be recoded prior to summation of item responses. Thus, total FCQ-T scores can range between 39 and 234 and higher scores indicate more frequent and intense experiences of food craving in general. [5]

SubscaleItems
Having intentions and plans to consume food5, 18, 23
Anticipation of positive reinforcement that may result from eating9, 10, 15, 24, 38
Anticipation of relief from negative states and feelings as a result of eating16, 19, 21
Lack of control over eating2, 3, 22, 25, 26, 29
Thoughts and preoccupation with food6, 8, 27, 28, 31, 32, 33
Craving as a physiological state11, 12, 13, 14
Emotions that may be experienced before or during food cravings or eating20, 30, 34, 39
Cues that may trigger food cravings1, 35, 36, 37
Guilt from cravings and/or for giving into them4, 7, 17

The FCQ-S has five subscales. To calculate a subscale score, item responses of each subscale are added up to sum scores as indicated in the table below. A total score of the FCQ-S can also be calculated by summing up all 15 items. No items have to be recoded prior to summation of item responses. Thus, total FCQ-S scores can range between 15 and 75 and higher scores indicate more intense current food craving. [5]

SubscaleItems
An intense desire to eat1, 2, 3
Anticipation of positive reinforcement that may result from eating4, 5, 6
Anticipation of relief from negative states and feelings as a result of eating7, 8, 9
Lack of control over eating10, 11, 12
Craving as a physiological state (i.e., hunger)13, 14, 15

Reliability

Both FCQs have high internal reliability (Cronbach's alpha >.90). [1] The FCQ-T also has high test-retest reliability which is, expectedly, lower for the FCQ-S as a state-dependent measure. [6]

Validity

Factorial validity has received limited support as factor structure of the FCQs could not be replicated in several studies. [1] Construct validity of the FCQ-T has been supported in that higher FCQ-T scores are predictive of stronger food-cue reactivity (e.g., larger increases in current food craving when exposed to tempting food stimuli) and higher consumption of high-calorie foods. Discriminant validity of the FCQ-T has been supported in that scores are largely unaffected by momentary states such as hunger and satiety. Construct validity of the FCQ-S has been supported in that higher FCQ-S scores relate to a longer food deprivation and are predictive of higher food intake in laboratory studies. Discriminant validity of the FCQ-S has been supported in that scores are largely unrelated to trait-like eating behaviors and body weight. [1]

Translated versions

The FCQ-T has been translated into several other languages such as Spanish, [7] German, [8] Italian, [9] Portuguese, [10] [11] Persian, [12] Turkish,[ citation needed ] and Chinese. [13] The FCQ-S has also been translated into several other languages such as Spanish, [7] German, [8] Italian, [14] Portuguese, [10] [11] and Korean [15]

Modified versions

Several abbreviated or otherwise modified versions of the FCQs have been developed. [1] The General Food Cravings Questionnaires (G-FCQs) are the Dutch translation of the FCQs. The G-FCQ-T includes 21 of the original FCQ-T's 39 items and the G-FCQ-S has (similar to the FCQ-S) 15 items but references to "one or more specific foods" were replaced by "something tasty". [16] The FCQ-T-reduced (FCQ-T-r) includes 15 of the original FCQ-T's 39 items and has been used in several languages such as English, [17] German, [18] Portuguese, [19] French, [20] Persian, [21] Spanish, [22] Italian, [23] [24] and Persian. [25] The FCQ-T-r has been recommended as a measure in studies on weight loss and weight maintenance by the Accumulating Data to Optimally Predict Obesity Treatment (ADOPT) Core Measures Project, which selected measures that are reliable, valid, brief, publicly available, and easily administered and scored. [26] Maranhão and colleagues [27] suggested abbreviated versions using the Portuguese versions of the FCQs with eight items (abbreviated FCQ-T) and five items (abbreviated FCQ-S). Chocolate-specific versions in which the items specifically refer to craving for chocolate have been developed for the FCQ-T, FCQ-T-r, and FCQ-S. [28] [29]

Comparison with other measures

The Food Craving Inventory (FCI) measures the frequency of cravings for specific foods over the past month. [30] Thus, the FCI can be used as an alternative to the FCQ-T for the assessment of food craving for different type of food groups. However, because the FCI names specific foods, it necessitates cultural adaptations when applied in different countries, which results in different versions of the FCI (i.e., different foods, number of items, and subscales). [31] [32] [33] [34] [35] Thus, the FCQ-T may be better suited than the FCI for cross-cultural studies. [36]

Similar to the FCQs, the Craving Experience Questionnaire (CEQ) has a scale for measuring craving as a trait (entitled "frequency form) and a scale for measuring craving as a state (entitled "strength form"). [37] The CEQ is particularly suited for assessing craving across different substances (including food) as a specific substance or food that the items refer to can be specified. Development of the CEQ was based on the rationale to create a measure that purely assesses the cognitive aspects of craving experiences (i.e., craving intensity, cognitive images, and intrusive thoughts about the substance) without confounding other aspects such as consumption behavior and outcome expectancies (i.e., aspects that are included in the FCQs). [37]

Other self-report questionnaires that were designed to specifically measure chocolate craving are the Attitudes to Chocolate Questionnaire [38] and the Orientation to Chocolate Questionnaire. [39]

References

  1. 1 2 3 4 5 Meule, Adrian (2020-03-01). "Twenty Years of the Food Cravings Questionnaires: a Comprehensive Review". Current Addiction Reports. 7 (1): 30–43. doi: 10.1007/s40429-020-00294-z . ISSN   2196-2952. S2CID   211088687.
  2. ↑ Taylor, Maija (2019-01-01). "A review of food craving measures" . Eating Behaviors. 32: 101–110. doi:10.1016/j.eatbeh.2019.01.005. ISSN   1471-0153. PMID   30685703. S2CID   59305871.
  3. ↑ Martin, Corby K.; McClernon, F. Joseph; Chellino, Anastasia; Correa, John B. (2011), Preedy, Victor R.; Watson, Ronald Ross; Martin, Colin R. (eds.), "Food Cravings: A Central Construct in Food Intake Behavior, Weight Loss, and the Neurobiology of Appetitive Behavior" , Handbook of Behavior, Food and Nutrition, New York, NY: Springer New York, pp. 741–755, doi:10.1007/978-0-387-92271-3_49, ISBN   978-0-387-92270-6 , retrieved 2023-06-08
  4. ↑ Hoover, Lindzey V.; Gearhardt, Ashley N. (2023). Meule, Adrian (ed.). Assessment of Food Craving and Food "Addiction" (1st ed.). Göttingen, Germany: Hogrefe. pp. 44–55. doi:10.1027/00616-000. ISBN   9780889376168.{{cite book}}: |work= ignored (help)
  5. 1 2 3 Cepeda-Benito, Antonio; Gleaves, David H.; Williams, Tara L.; Erath, Stephen A. (2000-12-01). "The development and validation of the state and trait food-cravings questionnaires" . Behavior Therapy. 31 (1): 151–173. doi:10.1016/S0005-7894(00)80009-X. ISSN   0005-7894.
  6. ↑ Meule, Adrian; Teran, Carina Beck; Berker, Jasmin; Gründel, Tilman; Mayerhofer, Martina; Platte, Petra (2014-09-06). "On the differentiation between trait and state food craving: Half-year retest-reliability of the Food Cravings Questionnaire-Trait-reduced (FCQ-T-r) and the Food Cravings Questionnaire-State(FCQ-S)". Journal of Eating Disorders. 2 (1): 25. doi: 10.1186/s40337-014-0025-z . ISSN   2050-2974. PMC   4212121 . PMID   25356313.
  7. 1 2 Cepeda-Benito, Antonio; Gleaves, David H; Fernández, M. Carmen; Vila, Jaime; Williams, Tara L; Reynoso, Jose (2000-11-01). "The development and validation of Spanish versions of the State and Trait Food Cravings Questionnaires" . Behaviour Research and Therapy. 38 (11): 1125–1138. doi:10.1016/S0005-7967(99)00141-2. ISSN   0005-7967. PMID   11060941.
  8. 1 2 Meule, Adrian; Lutz, Annika; Vögele, Claus; Kübler, Andrea (2012-02-01). "Food cravings discriminate differentially between successful and unsuccessful dieters and non-dieters. Validation of the Food Cravings Questionnaires in German" . Appetite. 58 (1): 88–97. doi:10.1016/j.appet.2011.09.010. ISSN   0195-6663. PMID   21983051. S2CID   9332895.
  9. ↑ Innamorati, Marco; Imperatori, Claudio; Balsamo, Michela; Tamburello, Stella; Belvederi Murri, Martino; Contardi, Anna; Tamburello, Antonino; Fabbricatore, Mariantonietta (2014-11-02). "Food Cravings Questionnaire–Trait (FCQ–T) Discriminates Between Obese and Overweight Patients With and Without Binge Eating Tendencies: The Italian Version of the FCQ–T" . Journal of Personality Assessment. 96 (6): 632–639. doi:10.1080/00223891.2014.909449. ISSN   0022-3891. PMID   24793741. S2CID   7285765.
  10. 1 2 Ulian, Mariana Dimitrov; Sato, Priscila de Morais; Benatti, Fabiana Braga; Campos-Ferraz, Patricia Lopes de; Roble, Odilon José; Unsain, Ramiro Fernandez; Gualano, Bruno; Scagliusi, Fernanda Baeza (February 2017). "Adaptação transcultural para o português dos Questionários de Desejos Intensos por Comida – Estado ou Traço (QDIC-E e QDIC-T) dos State and Trait Food-Cravings Questionnaires (FCQ-S and FCQ-T)". Ciência & Saúde Coletiva (in Portuguese). 22 (2): 403–416. doi: 10.1590/1413-81232017222.18272015 . ISSN   1413-8123.
  11. 1 2 Queiroz de Medeiros, Anna C.; Campos Pedrosa, Lucia F.; Hutz, Claudio Simon; Yamamoto, Maria E. (2016-10-01). "Brazilian version of food cravings questionnaires: Psychometric properties and sex differences" . Appetite. 105: 328–333. doi:10.1016/j.appet.2016.06.003. ISSN   0195-6663. PMID   27288149. S2CID   205613761.
  12. ↑ Kachooei, Mohsen; Ashrafi, Elham (2016). "Exploring the factor structure, reliability and validityof the food craving questionnaire-trait in Iranian adults". Journal of Kerman University of Medical Sciences. 23 (5): 631–648.
  13. ↑ Yu, Miao; Qian, Ming-yi; Mental, Department Affairs Student of Center Education Development Career and Health; Hunan, University; School, Sciences Cognitive and Psychological of; Peking, University (2016). "Reliability and Validity of the Food-Cravings Questionnaire-Trait in Chinese Female College Students". Chinese Journal of Clinical Psychology (4): 675–679.
  14. ↑ Lombardo, Caterina; Iani, Luca; Barbaranelli, Claudio (2016-08-01). "Validation of an Italian version of the Food Craving Questionnaire-State: Factor structure and sensitivity to manipulation" . Eating Behaviors. 22: 182–187. doi:10.1016/j.eatbeh.2016.06.003. ISSN   1471-0153. PMID   27294790.
  15. ↑ Yu, J. H.; Shin, M. S.; Kim, D. J.; Lee, J. R.; Yoon, S.-Y.; Kim, S. G.; Koh, E. H.; Lee, W. J.; Park, J.-Y.; Kim, M.-S. (September 2013). "Enhanced carbohydrate craving in patients with poorly controlled Type 2 diabetes mellitus" . Diabetic Medicine. 30 (9): 1080–1086. doi:10.1111/dme.12209. PMID   23586900. S2CID   33433182.
  16. ↑ Nijs, Ilse M. T.; Franken, Ingmar H. A.; Muris, Peter (2007-07-01). "The modified Trait and State Food-Cravings Questionnaires: Development and validation of a general index of food craving" . Appetite. 49 (1): 38–46. doi:10.1016/j.appet.2006.11.001. ISSN   0195-6663. PMID   17187897. S2CID   8446951.
  17. ↑ Hormes, Julia M.; Meule, Adrian (2016-01-01). "Psychometric properties of the English Food Cravings Questionnaire-Trait-reduced (FCQ-T-r)" . Eating Behaviors. 20: 34–38. doi:10.1016/j.eatbeh.2015.11.011. ISSN   1471-0153. PMID   26609669.
  18. ↑ Meule, Adrian; Hermann, Tina; Kübler, Andrea (2014). "A short version of the Food Cravings Questionnaire—Trait: the FCQ-T-reduced". Frontiers in Psychology. 5: 190. doi: 10.3389/fpsyg.2014.00190 . ISSN   1664-1078. PMC   3940888 . PMID   24624116.
  19. ↑ Queiroz de Medeiros, Anna C.; Pedrosa, Lucia de F. C.; Yamamoto, Maria E. (2018-10-11). "Exploring the structural and construct validity of the Brazilian Food Cravings Questionnaire-Trait-reduced (FCQ-T-r)". Brazilian Journal of Psychiatry. 41 (1): 66–69. doi:10.1590/1516-4446-2017-0019. ISSN   1516-4446. PMC   6781707 . PMID   30328958.
  20. ↑ Brunault, Paul; El Archi, Sarah; Ballon, Nicolas; Réveillère, Christian; Barrault, Servane (2018-10-01). "Validation de la version française du Food Cravings Questionnaire-Trait-reduced : un auto-questionnaire simple et de passation rapide pour mesurer le craving alimentaire" . Annales Médico-psychologiques, revue psychiatrique (in French). 176 (8): 788–795. doi:10.1016/j.amp.2018.08.002. ISSN   0003-4487. S2CID   149991028.
  21. ↑ Mohammadi, Mohammad Reza; Akhondzadeh, Shahin; Mostafavi, Seyed-Ali; Keshavarz, Seyed Ali; Ahmadi Motlagh, Taranom; Eshraghian, Mohammad Reza; Hosseini, Saeed (2018-09-01). "Reliability and Validity of the Persian Version of Food Craving Questionnaire-Trait-Reduced (FCQ-T-r) in Overweight and Obese Women". Journal of Nutrition,Fasting and Health. 6 (3): 150–157. doi:10.22038/jnfh.2018.35221.1150. ISSN   2821-2746.
  22. ↑ Rodríguez-Martín, Boris; Molerio-Pérez, Osana (2014). "Exploring the factor structure of the Food Cravings Questionnaire-Trait in Cuban adults". Frontiers in Psychology. 5: 214. doi: 10.3389/fpsyg.2014.00214 . ISSN   1664-1078. PMC   3957366 . PMID   24672503.
  23. ↑ Innamorati, Marco; Imperatori, Claudio; Meule, Adrian; Lamis, Dorian A.; Contardi, Anna; Balsamo, Michela; Tamburello, Antonino; Tamburello, Stella; Fabbricatore, Mariantonietta (2015-03-01). "Psychometric properties of the Italian Food Cravings Questionnaire-Trait-reduced (FCQ-T-r)" . Eating and Weight Disorders - Studies on Anorexia, Bulimia and Obesity. 20 (1): 129–135. doi:10.1007/s40519-014-0143-2. ISSN   1590-1262. PMID   25069838. S2CID   40922286.
  24. ↑ Iani, Luca; Barbaranelli, Claudio; Lombardo, Caterina (2015). "Cross-validation of the reduced form of the Food Craving Questionnaire-Trait using confirmatory factor analysis". Frontiers in Psychology. 6: 433. doi: 10.3389/fpsyg.2015.00433 . ISSN   1664-1078. PMC   4394638 . PMID   25918510.
  25. ↑ Vaziri, Alaleh; Selehi, Mohammad; Hassani-Abharian, Peyman; Shariatirad, Schwan; Mahjoub, Alireza; Dehjalali, Rogheye; Besarandi, Shadi; Danandeh, Faraz Kasseb; Noroozi, Alireza (2022-01-31). "Psychometric properties of the shortened Farsi version of the Food Cravings Questionnaire-Trait". Eastern Mediterranean Health Journal. 28 (1): 41–49. doi: 10.26719/emhj.21.066 . ISSN   1020-3397. PMID   35165877. S2CID   244206414.
  26. ↑ Sutin, Angelina R.; Boutelle, Kerri; Czajkowski, Susan M.; Epel, Elissa S.; Green, Paige A.; Hunter, Christine M.; Rice, Elise L.; Williams, David M.; Young-Hyman, Deborah; Rothman, Alexander J. (April 2018). "Accumulating Data to Optimally Predict Obesity Treatment (ADOPT) Core Measures: Psychosocial Domain: ADOPT: Psychosocial Domain". Obesity. 26 (Suppl 2): S45 –S54. doi:10.1002/oby.22160. PMC   7055940 . PMID   29575781.
  27. ↑ Maranhão, Mara Fernandes; Estella, Nara Mendes; Cogo-Moreira, Hugo; Schmidt, Ulrike; Campbell, Iain C.; Claudino, Angélica Medeiros (2018-05-28). "Concept and evaluation of food craving: unidimensional scales based on the Trait and the State Food Craving Questionnaire". Cadernos de Saúde Pública. 34 (5): e00144717. doi:10.1590/0102-311X00144717. ISSN   0102-311X. PMID   29846402. S2CID   44154354.
  28. ↑ Rodríguez, Sonia; Warren, Cortney S.; Moreno, Silvia; Cepeda-Benito, Antonio; Gleaves, David H.; del Carmen Fernández, María; Vila, Jaime (2007-07-01). "Adaptation of the food-craving questionnaire trait for the assessment of chocolate cravings: Validation across British and Spanish Women" . Appetite. 49 (1): 245–250. doi:10.1016/j.appet.2007.01.001. ISSN   0195-6663. PMID   17324486. S2CID   43849889.
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  30. ↑ White, Marney A.; Whisenhunt, Brooke L.; Williamson, Donald A.; Greenway, Frank L.; Netemeyer, Richard G. (February 2002). "Development and Validation of the Food-Craving Inventory". Obesity Research. 10 (2): 107–114. doi: 10.1038/oby.2002.17 . PMID   11836456.
  31. ↑ Nicholls, Wendy; Hulbert-Williams, Lee (2013-08-01). "British English translation of the Food Craving Inventory (FCI-UK)" . Appetite. 67: 37–43. doi:10.1016/j.appet.2013.03.010. ISSN   0195-6663. PMID   23541958. S2CID   16368914.
  32. ↑ Jáuregui Lobera, I. (2010-11-01). "PSYCHOMETRIC PROPERTIES OF THE SPANISH VERSION OF FOOD CRAVING INVENTORY (FCI-SP)". Nutricion Hospitalaria (6): 1–2. doi:10.3305/nh.2010.25.6.4967. ISSN   0212-1611.
  33. ↑ Tarragon, Ernesto; Stein, Jakob; Meyer, Jobst (2017). "Psychometric Properties of the German Translated Version and Adaptation of the Food Craving Inventory". Frontiers in Psychology. 8: 736. doi: 10.3389/fpsyg.2017.00736 . ISSN   1664-1078. PMC   5423968 . PMID   28539903.
  34. ↑ Komatsu, Sakura (2008-03-01). "Rice and sushi cravings: A preliminary study of food craving among Japanese females" . Appetite. 50 (2): 353–358. doi:10.1016/j.appet.2007.08.012. ISSN   0195-6663. PMID   18006114. S2CID   8213291.
  35. ↑ Queiroz de Medeiros, Anna Cecília; Pedrosa, Lucia de Fatima Campos; Yamamoto, Maria Emilia (2017-01-01). "Food cravings among Brazilian population" . Appetite. 108: 212–218. doi:10.1016/j.appet.2016.10.009. ISSN   0195-6663. PMID   27721012. S2CID   3624545.
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  38. ↑ Benton, David; Greenfield, Karen; Morgan, Michael (1998-04-01). "The development of the attitudes to chocolate questionnaire" . Personality and Individual Differences. 24 (4): 513–520. doi:10.1016/S0191-8869(97)00215-8. ISSN   0191-8869.
  39. ↑ Cartwright, Fiona; Stritzke, Werner G. K. (2008-01-01). "A multidimensional ambivalence model of chocolate craving: Construct validity and associations with chocolate consumption and disordered eating" . Eating Behaviors. 9 (1): 1–12. doi:10.1016/j.eatbeh.2007.01.006. ISSN   1471-0153. PMID   18167319.
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