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Kültepe, also known as Kanesh or Nesha, is an archaeological site in Kayseri Province, Turkey, inhabited from the beginning of the 3rd millennium BC, in the Early Bronze Age. The nearest modern city to Kültepe is Kayseri, about 20km southwest. It consisted of an Upper city, and a lower city, where an Assyrian kārum, trading colony, was found. Its ancient names are recorded in Assyrian and Hittite sources. In cuneiform inscriptions from the 20th and the 19th century BC, the city was mentioned as Kaneš (Kanesh); in later Hittite inscriptions, the city was mentioned as Neša, or occasionally as Aniša (Anisha). In 2014, the archaeological site was inscribed in the Tentative list of World Heritage Sites in Turkey. It is the place where the earliest record of a definitively Indo-European language has been found, Hittite, dated to the 20th century BC.
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Mursili I was a king of the Hittites c. 1620-1590 BC, as per the middle chronology, the most accepted chronology in our times, and was likely a grandson of his predecessor, Hattusili I. His sister was Ḫarapšili and his wife was queen Kali.
Anitta, son of Pitḫana, reigned ca. 1740–1725 BC, and was a king of Kuššara, a city that has yet to be identified. He is the earliest known ruler to compose a text in the Hittite language.
The Minoan eruption was a catastrophic volcanic eruption that devastated the Aegean island of Thera circa 1600 BCE. It destroyed the Minoan settlement at Akrotiri, as well as communities and agricultural areas on nearby islands and the coast of Crete with subsequent earthquakes and paleotsunamis. With a Volcanic Explosivity Index (VEI) of between 6 and 7, it resulted in the ejection of approximately 28–41 km3 (6.7–9.8 cu mi) of dense-rock equivalent (DRE), the eruption was one of the largest volcanic events in human history. Since tephra from the Minoan eruption serves as a marker horizon in nearly all archaeological sites in the Eastern Mediterranean, its precise date is of high importance and has been fiercely debated among archaeologists and volcanologists for decades, without coming to a definite conclusion.
Kussara (Kuššar) was a Middle Bronze Age kingdom in Anatolia. The kingdom, though apparently important at one time, is mostly remembered today as the origin of the dynasty that would form the Old Hittite Kingdom.
In the history of Assyria, the eponym dating system was a calendar system for Assyria, for a period of over one thousand years. Every year was associated with the name, an eponym, of the Limmu, the official who led that year's New Year festival.
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The chronology of the ancient Near East is a framework of dates for various events, rulers and dynasties. Historical inscriptions and texts customarily record events in terms of a succession of officials or rulers: "in the year X of king Y". Comparing many records pieces together a relative chronology relating dates in cities over a wide area.
Purushanda was an Anatolian kingdom of the early second millennium prior to the common era. It was conquered by the Hittites sometime between 1650 and 1556 BCE.
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Urshu, Warsuwa or Urshum was a Hurrian-Amorite city-state in southern Turkey, probably located on the west bank of the Euphrates, and north of Carchemish.
Lawazantiya was the cultic city of the goddess Šauška. It is mentioned in Old-Assyrian documents as Luhuzantiya. In Hittite texts the city is known as Lawazantiya, in Ugarit as Lwsnd and in Assyrian Annals as Lusanda. There is a Hittite document entitled "Festival of Teššub and Ḫebat of Lawazantiya" which has the king calling these deities in to open the spring festival. Hittite ruler Hattušili III met his future queen, Pudu-Hebain, in Lawazantiya. She is known to have been a strong promoter of Kizzuwatnean cults and traditions and was a daughter of Pentipšarri, a priest of Šauška. In the Telipinu Edict that Hittite ruler reports that the city had rebelled and been retaken.
Acemhöyük is an archaeological site in Turkey. The tell is located near the village of Yeşilova in Merkez district, Aksaray Province. The Bronze Age name for the place was probably Purušḫanda/Purušḫattum or Ullama. The site was important during the Early Bronze Age as part of the Anatolian Trade Network and the Middle Bronze Age as a colony in the Assyrian Trade Network, with a trading post called Karum.
Šinahuttum, later known as Sanahuitta, was a Bronze Age Assyrian city believed to have been northeast of Hattusa, the capital of the Hittite Empire in the late Bronze Age, near modern Boğazkale in Turkey. The city is mentioned in Assyrian sources 14 times and was noted for its donkey market and wool exchange.
Anisa (Ανίσα) was a town of ancient Cappadocia, inhabited in Hellenistic, Roman, and Byzantine times. A source described Anisa as a politeumata, which was a township for privileged foreigners. Although it did not control any territory outside its jurisdiction, it enjoyed internal self-government.
Anna was the main deity of Kanesh, an Anatolian city which in the Old Assyrian period served as an Assyrian trading colony. Multiple possibilities regarding her origin have been considered by researchers. A temple, festivals and clergy dedicated to her are attested in texts from her city, and in contracts she appears alongside the Assyrian god Ashur. At some point her position declined, and an unidentified weather god became the main local deity instead. It is nonetheless assumed that she continued to be worshiped later on by Hittites and Luwians. It has also been proposed that a deity from Emar can be identified with her, though not all researchers share this view.
Aškašepa was a Hittite deity presumed to be a deified mountain, possibly Mount Erciyes. He is first attested in a treaty from Kanesh, and continued to be regarded as one of the deities associated with this city in later sources. He was worshiped in cities such as Hattusa, Ištanuwa and Karaḫna. He also appears in a number of international treaties between the rulers of the Hittite Empire and other contemporary monarchs as one of the invoked divine witnesses.
Nipas was a god worshiped in Kanesh. His name might have been derived from the Hittite word nepis, "heaven", and he might have been a weather god. While he was most likely one of the main deities of the city, and a temple, festival and clergy associated with him are attested, for unknown reasons he does not appear in any later sources.
References
- 1 2 3 "Gojko Barjamovic". NELC (Department of Near Eastern languages and civilizations), Harvard University. Retrieved 25 November 2017.
- 1 2 G. Barjamovic; T. Hertel; M.T. Larsen (2012). "Ups and Downs at Kanesh. Chronology, History and Society in the Old Assyrian Period". PIHANS Volume 120 Chronology, History and Society in the Old Assyrian Period. (Old Assyrian Archives, Studies, Volume 5). ISBN 978-90-6258-331-7. ISSN 1571-5728 . Retrieved 25 November 2017.
- ↑ A Historical Geography of Anatolia in the Old Assyrian Colony Period. Museum Tusculanum Press. 2011. ISBN 978-87-635-3645-5 . Retrieved 19 November 2017.
{{cite book}}:|website=ignored (help) - ↑ Barjamovic, Gojko; Ryholt, Kim (2016-04-24). Problems of Canonicity and Identity Formation in Ancient Egypt and Mesopotamia. Press.uchicago.edu. ISBN 9788763543729 . Retrieved 19 November 2017.
- ↑ Manning, Sturt W; Griggs, Carol B; Lorentzen, Brita; Barjamovic, Gojko; Ramsey, Christopher Bronk; Kromer, Bernd; Wild, Eva Maria (13 July 2016). "Integrated Tree-Ring-Radiocarbon High-Resolution Timeframe to Resolve Earlier Second Millennium BCE Mesopotamian Chronology". PLOS ONE. 11 (7): e0157144. Bibcode:2016PLoSO..1157144M. doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0157144 . PMC 4943651 . PMID 27409585.
- ↑ Barjamovic, Gojko; Chaney, Thomas; Coşar, Kerem; Hortaçsu, Ali (November 2017). "Trade, Merchants, and the Lost Cities of the Bronze Age". NBER Working Paper No. 23992. doi: 10.3386/w23992 .
