Governance of hydropower in Scandinavia, and the implementation of hydropower projects, is controlled by self-organising networks, with an open decision making process. [1] Scandinavia is one of the largest producers of hydropower in the world. [2] [3]
National governments in Scandinavia consult with all stakeholders affected by hydropower plants. The interaction between stakeholders on hydropower projects in Norway can be classified as participatory governance. After the Scandinavian countries de-regulated their markets, they connected their individual markets into one common market, Nord Pool Spot. The energy that is not traded through the market is traded through contracts between suppliers, retailers and consumers. [8]
The Swedish electricity market was deregulated in 1996, transforming the industry from a government hierarchical system to a governance steering structure. [4] [9] The law stated that ‘power trading and network operations may not be conducted by the same organisation but numerous organisations thus the production and trade of electricity became competitive. The industry would be regulated by public authorities, the Energy Market Inspectorate within the Swedish Energy Agency. Its responsibilities included monitoring network tariffs and ensuring that network operators do not subsidise other interests. [9]
Most of Denmark's hydropower electricity comes from Norway and Sweden, [7] [ clarification needed ] supplied partly through Nord Pool Spot. [8] Denmark has increased its renewable energy sources (wind and biomass) from approximately 0% in 1970 to 20% in 2005, which leaves them on target for the RES directive. [3] Wind share was 39% in 2014. [10]
The different levels of governance in Norway concerning hydropower can be seen through the economic interests, and the social responses, to the installation and expansion of hydropower projects.
At the local level hydropower can have an enormous effect on communities; creating employment, improving infrastructure, and building new or enhanced roads. However, some communities can be resistant to hydropower, especially when local incomes are dependent on tourism. For example, fishing is an important recreational sport in Norway; and hydropower may prevent local people from participating. Also the installation of hydropower upon historic sites, and areas of natural beauty, is other major concern. Local communities have been known to bring in NGO's such as WWF Norway, or Friends of the Earth, in order to resist the installation of hydropower plants. [11]
The municipality's response to hydropower typically represents the response of local communities. Municipality must manage the concerns of the stakeholder's communities, energy companies and NGO's regarding the installation of hydropower plants. [11]
Various municipalities have shares and direct ownership of hydropower companies. Energy companies rely on municipalities to provide information on the local environment, and cooperate to create environmental impact assessments. This can involve numerous municipalities, as the watercourse may flow through several municipalities, and therefore are bound by regulations to work together on hydropower projects. [11]
Hydropower companies pay fees to the local municipalities in the form of taxes and license fees. Smaller hydropower plants are exempt from taxes in order to economically stimulate local development. The Norwegian Water Resources and Energy Directorate (NVE) determines the license fees paid to municipalities by hydropower companies. The NVE assess various factors such as degree of environmental disturbance and the profitability of the project. [11]
Hydropower has long been "associated with a nation-building process, representing the key infrastructure for economic growth and welfare, through electrification". [11]
In 1991 Norway de-regulated its market and these institutions became the network for governing hydropower in Norway:
Hydroelectricity, or hydroelectric power, is electricity generated from hydropower. Hydropower supplies one sixth of the world's electricity, almost 4500 TWh in 2020, which is more than all other renewable sources combined and also more than nuclear power. Hydropower can provide large amounts of low-carbon electricity on demand, making it a key element for creating secure and clean electricity supply systems. A hydroelectric power station that has a dam and reservoir is a flexible source, since the amount of electricity produced can be increased or decreased in seconds or minutes in response to varying electricity demand. Once a hydroelectric complex is constructed, it produces no direct waste, and almost always emits considerably less greenhouse gas than fossil fuel-powered energy plants. However, when constructed in lowland rainforest areas, where part of the forest is inundated, substantial amounts of greenhouse gases may be emitted.
The electricity sector in Norway relies predominantly on hydroelectricity. A significant share of the total electrical production is consumed by national industry.
Statkraft AS is a hydropower company, fully owned by the Norwegian state. The Statkraft Group is a generator of renewable energy, as well as Norway’s largest and the Nordic region's third largest energy producer. Statkraft develops and generates hydropower, wind power, gas power, district heating and solar power, and is also a player in the international energy markets. The company has 5300 employees in 21 countries with their headquarters located in Oslo, Norway.
Statnett is a Norwegian state owned enterprise responsible for owning, operating and constructing the stem power grid in Norway. The company has its headquarters in Oslo, Norway.
Renewable energy commercialization involves the deployment of three generations of renewable energy technologies dating back more than 100 years. First-generation technologies, which are already mature and economically competitive, include biomass, hydroelectricity, geothermal power and heat. Second-generation technologies are market-ready and are being deployed at the present time; they include solar heating, photovoltaics, wind power, solar thermal power stations, and modern forms of bioenergy. Third-generation technologies require continued R&D efforts in order to make large contributions on a global scale and include advanced biomass gasification, hot-dry-rock geothermal power, and ocean energy. As of 2012, renewable energy accounts for about half of new nameplate electrical capacity installed and costs are continuing to fall.
Denmark was a pioneer in developing commercial wind power during the 1970s, and today a substantial share of the wind turbines around the world are produced by Danish manufacturers such as Vestas—the world's largest wind-turbine manufacturer—along with many component suppliers. In Denmark's electricity sector wind power produced the equivalent of 47% of Denmark's total electricity consumption in 2019, an increase from 43.4% in 2017, 39% in 2014, and 33% in 2013. In 2012, the Danish government adopted a plan to increase the share of electricity production from wind to 50% by 2020, and to 84% by 2035. Denmark had the 4th best energy architecture performance in the world in 2017 according to the World Economic Forum, and the second best energy security in the world in 2019 according to the World Energy Council.
Renewable energy in Finland grew to 38.7% of total final energy consumption by year end 2014, achieving joint second position with Latvia in terms of renewable energy consumption by share amongst the EU-28 countries, behind its neighbour Sweden in first position on a 52.6% share. The 2014 share in Finland breaks down as renewable energy providing 52% of the heating and cooling sector, 31.4% of the electricity sector and 21.6% of the transport sector. By 2014, Finland had already exceeded its 2020 target for renewable energy use under the EU renewable energy directive as shown in the table of country targets.
Østfold Energi is a Norwegian energy producer within the business areas of hydropower, wind and heat. The company operates hydroelectric power plants in Østfold and Sogn og Fjordane with an annual power production of 1,680 TW·h/year. The power plants operated by Østfold Energi are Borgund power plant, Stuvane power plant, Nyset-Steggje power plant, Brekke power plant, Tistedalsfoss power plant and Ørje power plant.
Nordic electricity market is a common market for electricity in the Nordic countries. It is one of the first free electric-energy markets in Europe and is traded in NASDAQ OMX Commodities Europe and Nord Pool Spot. In 2003, the largest market shares were as follows: Vattenfall 17%, Fortum 14.1%, Statkraft 8.9%, E.on 7.5%, Elsam 5%, Pohjolan Voima 5%. Other producers had 42.5% market share.
Energinet is the Danish national transmission system operator for electricity and natural gas. It is an independent public enterprise owned by the Danish state under the Ministry of Climate and Energy. Energinet has some 1150 employees, and its headquarters are located in Erritsø near Fredericia in Jutland. The gas division is located in Ballerup near Copenhagen.
Norway is a heavy producer of renewable energy because of hydropower. Over 99% of the electricity production in mainland Norway is from 31 GW hydropower plants. The average hydropower is 133 TWh/year. There is also a large potential in wind power, offshore wind power and wave power, as well as production of bio-energy from wood. Norway has limited resources in solar energy, but is one of the world's largest producers of solar grade silicon and silicon solar cells.
Energy in Ethiopia is energy and electricity production, consumption, transport, exportation, and importation in Ethiopia.
The electricity sector of Uruguay has traditionally been based on domestic hydropower along with thermal power plants, and reliant on imports from Argentina and Brazil at times of peak demand. Over the last 10 years, investments in renewable energy sources such as wind power and solar power allowed the country to cover in early 2016 94.5% of its electricity needs with renewable energy sources.
Majority of electricity production in Sweden relies on hydro power and nuclear power. In 2008 the consumption of electricity in Sweden was 16018 kWh per capita, compared to EU average 7409 kWh per capita. Sweden has a national grid, which is part of the Synchronous grid of Northern Europe. A specialty of the Nordic energy market is the existence of so-called electricity price areas, which complicate the wholesale Nordic energy market.
The North Sea Link is a 1,400 MW high-voltage direct current submarine power cable between Norway and the United Kingdom.
Denmark's western electrical grid is part of the Synchronous grid of Continental Europe whereas the eastern part is connected to the Synchronous grid of Northern Europe via Sweden.
This page describes energy and electricity production, consumption and import in Laos.
Ethiopia generates most of its electricity from renewable energy, mainly hydropower.
There is enormous potential for renewable energy in Kazakhstan, particularly from wind and small hydropower plants. The Republic of Kazakhstan has the potential to generate 10 times as much power as it currently needs from wind energy alone. But renewable energy accounts for just 0.6 percent of all power installations. Of that, 95 percent comes from small hydropower projects. The main barriers to investment in renewable energy are relatively high financing costs and an absence of uniform feed-in tariffs for electricity from renewable sources. The amount and duration of renewable energy feed-in tariffs are separately evaluated for each project, based on feasibility studies and project-specific generation costs. Power from wind, solar, biomass and water up to 35 MW, plus geothermal sources, are eligible for the tariff and transmission companies are required to purchase the energy of renewable energy producers. An amendment that introduces and clarifies technology-specific tariffs is now being prepared. It is expected to be adopted by Parliament by the end of 2014. In addition, the World Bank's Ease of Doing Business indicator shows the country to be relatively investor-friendly, ranking it in 10th position for investor protection.
World energy supply and consumption is global production and preparation of fuel, generation of electricity, energy transport, and energy consumption. It is a basic part of economic activity. It includes heat, but not energy from food.
