Gray's biopsychological theory of personality

Last updated

The biopsychological theory of personality is a model of the general biological processes relevant for human psychology, behavior, and personality. The model, proposed by research psychologist Jeffrey Alan Gray in 1970, is well-supported by subsequent research and has general acceptance among professionals. [1]

Contents

Gray hypothesized the existence of two brain-based systems for controlling a person's interactions with their environment: the behavioural inhibition system (BIS) and the behavioural activation system (BAS). [2] [3] [4] BIS is related to sensitivity to punishment and avoidance motivation. BAS is associated with sensitivity to reward and approach motivation. There is evidence that the Behavioral Inhibition and Behavioral Activations system are connected to mood control, with positive or negative emotions occurring when rewarded or punished. [5] Those with a relatively high BAS are said to be extroverted and outgoing while those with a high BIS tend to be more reserved and introverted. Psychological scales have been designed to measure these hypothesized systems and study individual differences in personality. [6] Neuroticism, a widely studied personality dimension related to emotional functioning, is positively correlated with BIS scales and negatively correlated with BAS scales. [7]

History

The biopsychological theory of personality is similar to another one of Gray's theories, reinforcement sensitivity theory. The original version of Gray’s reinforcement sensitivity theory of personality was developed in 1976 and Gray revised it independently in 1982. Then in 2000 further and more thorough revisions were made alongside McNaughton. The purpose of the revision was to adapt the theory according to new inputs of scientific findings since the 1980s. Reinforcement sensitivity theory arose from the biopsychological theory of personality. [5] The Biopsychological Theory of Personality was created in 1970 after Gray disagreed with Hans Eysenck's arousal theory that dealt with biological personality traits. [8] According to Eysenck, differences in extraversion are a result of differences in sensitivity of the ascending reticular activating system. [9] People with less sensitive systems are not easily aroused and seek additional stimulation, resulting in an extraverted personality. [10] People with more sensitive systems are overstimulated and try to avoid additional stimulation, resulting in an introverted personality. [11]

The development of the biopsychological theory of personality occurred during Gray's time at Oxford where he was a fellow and lecturer. [12]

Gray's main critique of Eysenck’s theory was that introverts are not more sensitive to conditioning, but are more responsive to non reward and punishment. The evidence Gray collected for his hypothesis on the biological basis of personality comes from blink tests done on humans and studies done on animals injected with sodium amobarbital. [13] Using animal subjects allows researchers to test whether different areas of the brain are responsible for different learning mechanisms. Specifically, Gray's theory concentrated on understanding how reward or punishment related to anxiety and impulsivity measures. His research and further studies have found that reward and punishment are under the control of separate systems and as a result people can have different sensitivities to such rewarding or punishing stimuli. [14]

Behavioral inhibition system

The behavioral inhibition system (BIS), as proposed by Gray, is a neuropsychological system that predicts an individual's response to anxiety-relevant cues in a given environment. This system is activated in times of punishment, boring things, or negative events. [15] By responding to cues such as negative stimuli or events that involve punishment or frustration, this system ultimately results in avoidance of such negative and unpleasant events. [14] According to Gray's Theory, the BIS is related to sensitivity to punishment as well as avoidance motivation. It has also been proposed that the BIS is the causal basis of anxiety. [13] High activity of the BIS means a heightened sensitivity to nonreward, punishment, and novel experience. This higher level of sensitivity to these cues results in a natural avoidance of such environments in order to prevent negative experiences such as fear, anxiety, frustration, and sadness. People who are highly sensitive to punishment perceive punishments as more aversive and are more likely to be distracted by punishments. [16]

The physiological mechanism behind the BIS is believed to be the septohippocampal system and its monoaminergic afferents from the brainstem. [6] Using a voxel-based morphometry analysis, the volume of the regions mentioned was assessed to view individual differences. Findings may suggest a correlation between the volume and anxiety-related personality traits. Results were found in the orbitofrontal cortex, the precuneus, the amygdala, and the prefrontal cortex. [17]

Behavioral activation system

The behavioral activation system (BAS), in contrast to the BIS, is based on a model of appetitive motivation - in this case, an individual's natural disposition to pursue and achieve goals. The BAS is aroused when it receives cues corresponding to rewards and controls actions that are not related to punishment, rather actions regulating approachment type behaviors. This system has an association with hope. [15] According to Gray's theory, the BAS is sensitive to conditioned appealing stimuli, and is associated with impulsivity. [18] It is also thought to be related to sensitivity to reward as well as approach motivation. The BAS is sensitive to nonpunishment and reward. Individuals with a highly active BAS show higher levels of positive emotions such as elation, happiness, and hope in response to environmental cues consistent with nonpunishment and reward, along with goal-achievement. In terms of personality, these individuals are also more likely to engage in goal-directed efforts and experience these positive emotions when exposed to impending reward. BAS is considered to include trait impulsivity that is also related to psychopathological disorders such as ADHD, substance use disorder, and alcohol use disorder. [19] The higher the BAS score, or the higher the impulsive, the more it is likely to be related to psycho-pathological or dis-inhibitory disorders. [20] Certain aspects of the dopaminergic reward system activate when reward cues and reinforcers are presented, including biological rewards such as food and sex. [21] These brain areas, which were highlighted during multiple fMRI studies, are the same areas associated with BAS. The BAS is believed to play a role in romantic love. [22]

Comparative Analysis of BIS and BAS

Together, the two systems work in an inverse relationship. In other words, when a specific situation occurs, an organism can approach the situation with one of the two systems. The systems will not be stimulated at the same time and which system is dominant depends on the situation in terms of punishment versus reward. [23] This phenomenon of the differentiation between the two systems is thought to occur because of the distinct areas in the brain that becomes activated in response to different stimuli. This difference was noted years ago through electrical stimulation of the brain. [24]

The behavioral activation system and behavioral inhibition system differ in their physiological pathways in the brain. The inhibition system has been shown to be linked to the septo-hippocampal system which appears to have a close correlation to a serotonergic pathway, with similarities in their innervations and stress responses. On the other hand, the activation, or reward system, is thought to be associated more with a mesolimbic dopaminergic system as opposed to the serotonergic system. [23]

The two systems proposed by Gray differ in their motivations and physiological responses. Gray also proposed that individuals can vary widely in their responsiveness of the behavioral inhibition system and the behavioral activation system. It has been found that someone who is sensitive to their BIS will be more receptive to the negative cues as compared to someone who is sensitive to their BAS and therefore responds more to cues in the environment that relate to that system, specifically positive or rewarding cues. Researchers besides Gray have shown interest in this theory and have created questionnaires that measure BIS and BAS sensitivity. Carver and White have been the primary researchers responsible for the questionnaire. Carver and White created a scale that has been shown to validly measure levels of individual scores of BIS and BAS. This measure focuses on the differences in incentive motivations and aversive motivations. As previously mentioned these motivations correlate to impulsivity and anxiety respectively. [14]

Compare and Contrast of Biological Theories of Personality

It is important to analyze the difference between Eysenck's and Gray's theories of personality as Gray’s theory itself arose from a critique of Eysenck's theory. [13] After Eysenck’s biology based “top-down” theory of personality, Gray proposed an alternative, “bottom-up” explanation called the Biopsychological Theory of Personality. [5] Contrary to his previous theory called the reinforcement sensitivity theory, the biopsychological theory of personality is a theory of personality that puts an emphasis on the differences among individuals in different areas of the brain that are responsible for the facets of personality. [25] Gray’s Theory differed from Eysenck's as Eysenck’s theory involved three dimensions: Extraversion, Neuroticism, and Psychoticism. Each dimension was related to how sensitive a person is to stimuli. For example, people who were rated as having stronger reactions to stimuli should be lower in Extraversion as the strong sensation is uncomfortable to them, according to Eysenck’s theory. [25] Gray's theory relies more heavily on physiological explanation versus arousability which was used to explain Eysenck's theory. Gray's theory involves the Behavioral Activation System and Behavioral Inhibition System and how these systems affect personality. [26] While different in some regard, it has also been proposed with some evidence that there is a correlation between Gray’s BIS and Eysenck's Neuroticism. Gray’s BAS also has evidence of correlation to Eysenck’s Extraversion. [25]

Applications

Since the development of the BAS and BIS, tests have been created to see how individuals rate in each area. The questionnaire is called the Behavioral Inhibition System and Behavioral Activation System Questionnaire. [27]

People can be tested based on their activation of either systems by using an EEG. These tests will conclude whether a person has a more active BIS or BAS. The two systems are independent of each other. [15]

These tests can determine different things about a person's personality. They can determine if a person has more positive or negative moods. [15] Using psychological test scales designed to correlate with the attributes of these hypothesized systems, neuroticism has been found to be positively correlated with the BIS scale, and negatively correlated with the BAS scale. [7]

According to Richard Depue's BAS dysregulation theory of bipolar disorders, [28] now doctors and other professionals can determine if a person with bipolar disorder is on the brink of a manic or depressive episode based on how they rate on a scale of BAS and BIS sensitivity. Essentially, this dysregulation theory proposes that people with BAS dysregulation have an extraordinarily sensitive behavioral activation system and their BAS is hyper-responsive to behavioral approach system cues. [28] If a person with bipolar disorder self-reports high sensitivity to BAS, it means that a manic episode could occur faster. Also, if a person with bipolar disorder reports high sensitivity to BIS it could indicate a depressive phase. [29] A better understanding of BAS dysregulation theory can inform psychosocial intervention (e.g. cognitive behavioral therapy, psychoeducation, interpersonal and social rhythm therapy, etc.). [28]

The BAS/BIS Questionnaire can also be used in the cases of criminal profiling. [27] Previous research as reported by researchers MacAndrew and Steele in 1991 compared two groups on opposite spectrum levels of fear and the response of a variety of questions. The two groups in the study varied on levels of BIS, either high or low, and were selected by the researchers. One group was composed of women who had experienced anxiety attacks and together made up the high BIS group. The low BIS group was composed of convicted prostitutes who had been found to take part in illegal behavior. Main findings showed that the responses to the questionnaires were distinctly different between the high BIS group and the low BIS group, with the convicted women scoring lower. Results from this study demonstrate that questionnaires can be used as a valid measurement to show differences in the behavioral inhibition systems of different types of people. [14] Gray also introduced his SPSRQ questionnaire to measure sensitivity to reward (SR) and sensitivity to punishment (SP) in anxiety (2012). It is a specifically designed questionnaire linking to Gray's theory referencing the SR to the BAS and the SP to the BIS. [20]

Related Research Articles

In psychology, trait theory is an approach to the study of human personality. Trait theorists are primarily interested in the measurement of traits, which can be defined as habitual patterns of behavior, thought, and emotion. According to this perspective, traits are aspects of personality that are relatively stable over time, differ across individuals, are relatively consistent over situations, and influence behaviour. Traits are in contrast to states, which are more transitory dispositions.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Arousal</span> State of being awoken

Arousal is the physiological and psychological state of being awoken or of sense organs stimulated to a point of perception. It involves activation of the ascending reticular activating system (ARAS) in the brain, which mediates wakefulness, the autonomic nervous system, and the endocrine system, leading to increased heart rate and blood pressure and a condition of sensory alertness, desire, mobility, and reactivity.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Sensory processing sensitivity</span> Personality trait of highly sensitive people

Sensory processing sensitivity (SPS) is a temperamental or personality trait involving "an increased sensitivity of the central nervous system and a deeper cognitive processing of physical, social, and emotional stimuli". The trait is characterized by "a tendency to 'pause to check' in novel situations, greater sensitivity to subtle stimuli, and the engagement of deeper cognitive processing strategies for employing coping actions, all of which is driven by heightened emotional reactivity, both positive and negative".

In psychology, the Eysenck Personality Questionnaire (EPQ) is a questionnaire to assess the personality traits of a person. It was devised by psychologists Hans Jürgen Eysenck and Sybil B. G. Eysenck.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Social rejection</span> Deliberate exclusion of an individual from social relationship or social interaction

Social rejection occurs when an individual is deliberately excluded from a social relationship or social interaction. The topic includes interpersonal rejection, romantic rejection, and familial estrangement. A person can be rejected or shunned by individuals or an entire group of people. Furthermore, rejection can be either active by bullying, teasing, or ridiculing, or passive by ignoring a person, or giving the "silent treatment". The experience of being rejected is subjective for the recipient, and it can be perceived when it is not actually present. The word "ostracism" is also commonly used to denote a process of social exclusion.

Social inhibition is the conscious or subconscious avoidance of a situation or social interaction. With a high level of social inhibition, situations are avoided because of the possibility of others disapproving of their feelings or actions. Related processes that deal with social inhibition are social evaluation concerns, anxiety in social interaction, social avoidance, and withdrawal. Also related are components such as cognitive patterns, anxious apprehension during social interactions, and internalizing problems. It also describes those who suppress anger, restrict social behavior, withdraw in the face of novelty, and have a long latency to interact with strangers.

Jeffrey Alan Gray was a British research psychologist. He is known for his biopsychological theory of personality. He is also notable for his contributions to the theory of consciousness.

Neuroticism is a personality trait associated with negative emotions. It is one of the Big Five traits. Individuals with high scores on neuroticism are more likely than average to experience such feelings as anxiety, worry, fear, anger, frustration, envy, jealousy, pessimism, guilt, depressed mood, and loneliness. Such people are thought to respond worse to stressors and are more likely to interpret ordinary situations, such as minor frustrations, as appearing hopelessly difficult. Their behavioral responses may include procrastination, substance use, and other maladaptive behaviors, which may temporarily aid in relieving negative emotions and generating positive ones.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Impulsivity</span> Tendency to act on a whim without considering consequences

In psychology, impulsivity is a tendency to act on a whim, displaying behavior characterized by little or no forethought, reflection, or consideration of the consequences. Impulsive actions are typically "poorly conceived, prematurely expressed, unduly risky, or inappropriate to the situation that often result in undesirable consequences," which imperil long-term goals and strategies for success. Impulsivity can be classified as a multifactorial construct. A functional variety of impulsivity has also been suggested, which involves action without much forethought in appropriate situations that can and does result in desirable consequences. "When such actions have positive outcomes, they tend not to be seen as signs of impulsivity, but as indicators of boldness, quickness, spontaneity, courageousness, or unconventionality." Thus, the construct of impulsivity includes at least two independent components: first, acting without an appropriate amount of deliberation, which may or may not be functional; and second, choosing short-term gains over long-term ones.

In psychology, novelty seeking (NS) is a personality trait associated with exploratory activity in response to novel stimulation, impulsive decision making, extravagance in approach to reward cues, quick loss of temper, and avoidance of frustration. That is, novelty seeking refers to the tendency to pursue new experiences with intense emotional sensations. It is a multifaceted behavioral construct that includes thrill seeking, novelty preference, risk taking, harm avoidance, and reward dependence.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Reward dependence</span>

Reward dependence (RD) is characterized as a tendency to respond markedly to signals of reward, particularly to verbal signals of social approval, social support, and sentiment. When reward dependence levels deviate from normal we see the rise of several personality and addictive disorders.

Communibiology is a term referring to a research paradigm that emphasizes the "neurobiological foundations of human communication behavior". Communibiologists take the nature side of the nature versus nurture debate in communication development. The communibiological paradigm was developed by Beatty and McCroskey as an alternative to the nature side supporting social learning paradigm. They believe genetics to be far more important in the development of communication behavior than learning processes and the environment. These researchers do concede, however, that genetic factors are not the sole source of communication behavior. One accepted ratio is 20% influence of cultural, situational, or environmental stimuli and 80% influence of inborn, neurobiological structures on behavior.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Extraversion and introversion</span> Personality trait

Extraversion and introversion are a central trait dimension in human personality theory. The terms were introduced into psychology by Carl Jung, though both the popular understanding and current psychological usage are not the same as Jung's original concept. Extraversion tends to be manifested in outgoing, talkative, energetic behavior, whereas introversion is manifested in more reflective and reserved behavior. Jung defined introversion as an "attitude-type characterised by orientation in life through subjective psychic contents", and extraversion as "an attitude-type characterised by concentration of interest on the external object".

Reinforcement sensitivity theory (RST) proposes three brain-behavioral systems that underlie individual differences in sensitivity to reward, punishment, and motivation. While not originally defined as a theory of personality, the RST has been used to study and predict anxiety, impulsivity, and extraversion. The theory evolved from Gray's biopsychological theory of personality to incorporate findings from a number of areas in psychology and neuroscience, culminating in a major revision in 2000. The revised theory distinguishes between fear and anxiety and proposes functionally related subsystems. Measures of RST have not been widely adapted to reflect the revised theory due to disagreement over related versus independent subsystems. Despite this controversy, RST informed the study of anxiety disorders in clinical settings and continues to be used today to study and predict work performance. RST, built upon Gray's behavioral inhibition system (BIS) and behavioral activation system (BAS) understanding, also may help to suggest predispositions to and predict alcohol and drug abuse. RST, a continuously evolving paradigm, is the subject of multiple areas of contemporary psychological enquiry.

The alternative five factor model of personality is based on the claim that the structure of human personality traits is best explained by five broad factors called impulsive sensation seeking (ImpSS), neuroticism–anxiety (N-Anx), aggression–hostility (Agg-Host), sociability (Sy), and activity (Act). The model was developed by Marvin Zuckerman and colleagues as a rival to the well-known five factor model of personality traits and is based on the assumption that "basic" personality traits are those with a strong biological-evolutionary basis. One of the salient differences between these two models is that the alternative five model lacks any equivalent to the dimension called openness to experience in the five factor model.

The biological basis of personality is a collection of brain systems and mechanisms that underlie human personality. Human neurobiology, especially as it relates to complex traits and behaviors, is not well understood, but research into the neuroanatomical and functional underpinnings of personality are an active field of research. Animal models of behavior, molecular biology, and brain imaging techniques have provided some insight into human personality, especially trait theories.

Activity-specific approach in temperament research is the theory related to a structure of temperament, i.e. how temperament traits can be classified and organized. This approach suggests:

Personality theories of addiction are psychological models that associate personality traits or modes of thinking with an individual's proclivity for developing an addiction. Models of addiction risk that have been proposed in psychology literature include an affect dysregulation model of positive and negative psychological affects, the reinforcement sensitivity theory model of impulsiveness and behavioral inhibition, and an impulsivity model of reward sensitization and impulsiveness.

Distress tolerance is an emerging construct in psychology that has been conceptualized in several different ways. Broadly, however, it refers to an individual's "perceived capacity to withstand negative emotional and/or other aversive states, and the behavioral act of withstanding distressing internal states elicited by some type of stressor." Some definitions of distress tolerance have also specified that the endurance of these negative events occur in contexts in which methods to escape the distressor exist.

Personality neuroscience uses neuroscientific methods to study the neurobiological mechanisms underlying individual differences in stable psychological attributes. Specifically, personality neuroscience aims to investigate the relationships between inter-individual variation in brain structures as well as functions and behavioral measures of persistent psychological traits, broadly defined as "predispositions and average tendencies to be in particular states", including but are not limited to personality traits, sociobehavioral tendencies, and psychopathological risk factors. Personality neuroscience is considered as an interdisciplinary field integrating research questions and methodologies from social psychology, personality psychology, and neuroscience. It is closely related to other interdisciplinary fields, such as social, cognitive, and affective neuroscience.

References

  1. ↑ Matthews, Gerald; Gilliland, Kirby (1999). "The personality theories of H.J. Eysenck and J.A. Gray: A comparative review". Personality and Individual Differences. 26 (4): 583–626. doi:10.1016/S0191-8869(98)00158-5.
  2. ↑ Gray, J.A. (1981). A critique of Eysenck's theory of personality, In H.J. Eysenck (Ed.) A model for personality (pp 246–276)
  3. ↑ Gray, J.A. (1982). The neuropsychology of anxiety: An enquiry into the functions of the septo-hippocampal system.
  4. ↑ M.P. Feldman, A.M. Broadhurst (Eds.), Theoretical and experimental bases of behaviour modification, Wiley, London (1976), pp. 3–41
  5. 1 2 3 Smillie, Luke D.; Pickering, Alan D.; Jackson, Chris J. (November 2006). "The New Reinforcement Sensitivity Theory: Implications for Personality Measurement". Personality and Social Psychology Review. 10 (4): 320–335. doi:10.1207/s15327957pspr1004_3. ISSN   1088-8683. PMID   17201591. S2CID   23768053.
  6. 1 2 Carver, C.S.; White, T.L. (1994). "Behavioral Inhibition, Behavioral Activation, and Affective Responses to Impending Reward and Punishment: The BIS/BAS Scales". Journal of Personality and Social Psychology. 67 (2): 319–333. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.67.2.319. S2CID   6452203.
  7. 1 2 Boksema, M.A.S; Topsa, M.; Westera, A.E.; Meijmana, T.F.; Lorist, M.M. (2006). "Error-related ERP components and individual differences in punishment and reward sensitivity". Brain Research. 1101 (1): 92–101. doi:10.1016/j.brainres.2006.05.004. hdl: 1874/19738 . PMID   16784728. S2CID   17629273.
  8. ↑ Gray, Jeffrey A.; Neil McNaughton (1982). "The neuropsychology of anxiety: An inquiry into the functions of the septo-hippocampal system.". Oxford University Press.
  9. ↑ "Eysenck - an overview | ScienceDirect Topics". www.sciencedirect.com. Retrieved 2023-02-27.
  10. ↑ "Eysenck - an overview | ScienceDirect Topics". www.sciencedirect.com. Retrieved 2023-02-27.
  11. ↑ "Eysenck - an overview | ScienceDirect Topics". www.sciencedirect.com. Retrieved 2023-02-27.
  12. ↑ Rawlins, Nick (2004-05-13). "Obituary: Jeffrey Gray". the Guardian. Retrieved 2022-05-05.
  13. 1 2 3 Gray, Jeffrey A. (1970). "The psychophysiological basis of introversion-extraversion". Behaviour Research and Therapy. 8 (3): 249–266. doi:10.1016/0005-7967(70)90069-0. PMID   5470377.
  14. 1 2 3 4 Larsen, R. J. & Buss, D. M. (2008). Personality Psychology.New York: McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.
  15. 1 2 3 4 Gable, L.S.; Reis, T.J.; Elliot, J.A. (2000). "Behavioral activation and inhibition in everyday life". Journal of Personality and Social Psychology. 78 (6): 1135–1149. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.78.6.1135. PMID   10870914. S2CID   14891811.
  16. ↑ Braem S, Duthoo W, Notebaert W (2013). "Punishment Sensitivity Predicts the Impact of Punishment on Cognitive Control". PLOS ONE. 8 (9): e74106. Bibcode:2013PLoSO...874106B. doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0074106 . PMC   3772886 . PMID   24058520.
  17. ↑ Fuentes, Paola; Barrós-Loscertales, Alfonso; Bustamante, Juan Carlos; Rosell, Patricia; Costumero, Víctor; Ávila, César (September 2012). "Individual differences in the Behavioral Inhibition System are associated with orbitofrontal cortex and precuneus gray matter volume". Cognitive, Affective, & Behavioral Neuroscience. 12 (3): 491–498. doi: 10.3758/s13415-012-0099-5 . hdl: 10234/63890 . ISSN   1530-7026. PMID   22592859.
  18. ↑ Corr, Philip J (2001). "Testing problems in J. A. Gray's personality theory: a commentary on". Personality and Individual Differences. 30 (2): 333–352. doi:10.1016/S0191-8869(00)00028-3.
  19. ↑ Franken, Ingmar H.A.; Muris, Peter; Georgieva, Irina (March 2006). "Gray's model of personality and addiction". Addictive Behaviors. 31 (3): 399–403. doi:10.1016/j.addbeh.2005.05.022. PMID   15964149.
  20. 1 2 Hahn, Tim; Dresler, Thomas; Ehlis, Ann-Christine; Pyka, Martin; Dieler, Alica C.; Saathoff, Claudia; Jakob, Peter M.; Lesch, Klaus-Peter; Fallgatter, Andreas J. (January 2012). "Randomness of resting-state brain oscillations encodes Gray's personality trait". NeuroImage. 59 (2): 1842–1845. doi:10.1016/j.neuroimage.2011.08.042. PMID   21889990. S2CID   19861932.
  21. ↑ Costumero, Victor; Barrós-Loscertales, Alfonso; Bustamante, Juan Carlos; Ventura-Campos, Noelia; Fuentes, Paola; Rosell-Negre, Patricia; Ávila, César (2013-06-28). Rao, Hengyi (ed.). "Reward Sensitivity Is Associated with Brain Activity during Erotic Stimulus Processing". PLOS ONE. 8 (6): e66940. Bibcode:2013PLoSO...866940C. doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0066940 . ISSN   1932-6203. PMC   3695981 . PMID   23840558.
  22. ↑ Bode, Adam; Kavanagh, Phillip S. (November 2023). "Romantic Love and Behavioral Activation System Sensitivity to a Loved One". Behavioral Sciences. 13 (11): 921. doi: 10.3390/bs13110921 . ISSN   2076-328X. PMC   10669312 . PMID   37998668.
  23. 1 2 Gray, J. A. (1987). The psychology of fear and stress. New York: Cambridge University Press.
  24. ↑ Nebylitsyn, V. D. & Gray, J. A. (1972). Biological bases of individual behavior. New York: Academic Press, Inc.
  25. 1 2 3 Ashton, Michael Craig (2017). Individual Differences and Personality (3rd ed.). Elsevier Science. ISBN   978-0-12-809845-5. OCLC   987583452.
  26. ↑ Carver, Charles S.; White, Teri L. (1994). "Behavioral inhibition, behavioral activation, and affective responses to impending reward and punishment: The BIS/BAS Scales". Journal of Personality and Social Psychology. 67 (2): 319–333. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.67.2.319. ISSN   1939-1315. S2CID   6452203.
  27. 1 2 Novović, Z.; Mišić-Pavkov, G.; Smederevac, S.; Drakić, D.; Lukić, T. (2013). "The role of schizoid personality, peritraumatic dissociation and behavioral activation system in . a case of parricide". Aggression and Violent Behavior. 18 (1): 113–117. doi:10.1016/j.avb.2012.11.004.
  28. 1 2 3 Nusslock, R.; Abramson, L. (2009). "Psychosocial Interventions for Bipolar Disorder: Perspective from the Behavioral Approach System (BAS) Dysregulation Theory". Journal of Clinical Psychology. 16 (4): 449–469. doi:10.1111/j.1468-2850.2009.01184.x. PMC   2790718 . PMID   20161456.
  29. ↑ Alloy, L. B.; Abramson, L. Y.; Walshaw, P. D.; Cogswell, A.; Grandin, L. D.; Hughes, M. E.; Hogan, M. E. (2008). "Behavioral Approach System and Behavioral Inhibition System sensitivities and bipolar spectrum disorders: prospective prediction of bipolar mood episodes". Bipolar Disorders. 10 (2): 310–322. doi:10.1111/j.1399-5618.2007.00547.x. PMID   18271911.
This page is based on this Wikipedia article
Text is available under the CC BY-SA 4.0 license; additional terms may apply.
Images, videos and audio are available under their respective licenses.