Neuroticism

Last updated

Neuroticism is a personality trait associated with negative emotions. It is one of the Big Five traits. Individuals with high scores on neuroticism are more likely than average to experience such feelings as anxiety, worry, fear, anger, frustration, envy, jealousy, pessimism, guilt, depressed mood, and loneliness. [1] Such people are thought to respond worse to stressors and are more likely to interpret ordinary situations, such as minor frustrations, as appearing hopelessly difficult. Their behavioral responses may include procrastination, substance use, and other maladaptive behaviors, which may temporarily aid in relieving negative emotions and generating positive ones.

Contents

People with high scores on the neuroticism index are thought to be at risk of developing common mental disorders (mood disorders, anxiety disorders, and substance use disorders have been studied), [2] [3] and the sorts of symptoms once referred to as "neuroses". [4]

Individuals who score low in neuroticism tend to be more emotionally stable and less reactive to stress. They tend to be calm, even-tempered, and less likely to feel tense or rattled. Although they are low in negative emotion, they are not necessarily high in positive emotion. According to a 1998 study, being high in scores of positive emotion is generally an element of the independent traits of extraversion and agreeableness. [5] Neurotic extraverts, for example, would experience high levels of both positive and negative emotional states, a kind of "emotional roller coaster". [6] [5]

Definition

Neuroticism is a trait in many models within personality theory, but there is some disagreement on its definition. It is sometimes defined as a tendency for quick arousal when stimulated and slow relaxation from arousal, especially with regard to negative emotional arousal. [7] [8] This definition also fit people described as "highly sensitive" by psychologist Elaine Aron, who sees high sensitivity as a misunderstood trait that was useful in human evolution. Another definition focuses on emotional instability and negativity or maladjustment, in contrast to emotional stability and positivity, or good adjustment. It has also been defined in terms of lack of self-control and poor ability to manage psychological stress. [9]

Various personality tests produce numerical scores, and these scores are mapped onto the concept of "neuroticism" in various ways, which has created some confusion in the scientific literature, especially with regard to sub-traits or "facets". [9]

Measurement

Like other personality traits, neuroticism is typically viewed as a continuous dimension rather than a discrete state.

The extent of neuroticism is generally assessed using self-report measures, although peer-reports and third-party observation can also be used. Self-report measures are either lexical [1] or based on statements. [10] Deciding which measure of either type to use in research is determined by an assessment of psychometric properties and the time and space constraints of the study being undertaken.

Lexical measures use individual adjectives that reflect neurotic traits, such as anxiety, envy, jealousy, and moodiness, and are very space and time efficient for research purposes. Lewis Goldberg (1992) [11] developed a 20-word measure as part of his 100-word Big Five markers. Saucier (1994) [12] developed a briefer 8-word measure as part of his 40-word mini-markers. Thompson (2008) [1] systematically revised these measures to develop the International English Mini-Markers which has superior validity and reliability in populations both within and outside North America. Internal consistency reliability of the International English Mini-Markers for the Neuroticism (emotional stability) measure for native English-speakers is reported as 0.84, and that for non-native English-speakers is 0.77. [1]

Statement measures tend to comprise more words, and hence consume more research instrument space, than lexical measures. Respondents are asked the extent to which they, for example, "Remain calm under pressure", or "Have frequent mood swings". [10] While some statement-based measures of neuroticism have similarly acceptable psychometric properties in North American populations to lexical measures, their generally emic development makes them less suited to use in other populations. [13] For instance, statements in colloquial North American English like "feeling blue" or "being down in the dumps" are sometimes hard for non-native English-speakers to understand.

Neuroticism has also been studied from the perspective of Gray's biopsychological theory of personality, using a scale that measures personality along two dimensions: the behavioural inhibition system (BIS) and the behavioural activation system (BAS). [14] [15] The BIS is thought to be related to sensitivity to punishment as well as avoidance motivation, while the BAS is thought to be related to sensitivity to reward as well as approach motivation. Neuroticism has been found to be positively correlated with the BIS scale, and negatively correlated with the BAS scale. [16] [17]

Neuroticism has been included as one of the four dimensions that comprise core self-evaluations, one's fundamental appraisal of oneself, along with locus of control, self-efficacy, and self-esteem. [18] The concept of core self-evaluations was first examined by Judge, Locke, and Durham (1997), [18] and since then evidence has been found to suggest these have the ability to predict several work outcomes, specifically, job satisfaction and job performance. [18] [19] [20] [21] [22]

There is a risk of selection bias in surveys of neuroticism; a 2012 review of N-scores said that "many studies used samples drawn from privileged and educated populations". [9]

Neuroticism is highly correlated with the startle reflex in response to fearful conditions and inversely correlated with it in response to disgusting or repulsive stimuli. This suggests that Neuroticism may increase vigilance where evasive action is possible but promote emotional blunting when escape is not an option. [23] A measure of the startle reflex can be used to predict the trait neuroticism with good accuracy; a fact that is thought by some to underlie the neurological basis of the trait. The startle reflex is a reflex in response to a loud noise that one typically has no control over, though anticipation can reduce the effect. The strength of the reflex as well as the time until the reflex ceases can be used to predict both neuroticism and extraversion. [24]

Mental disorder correlations

Questions used in many neuroticism scales overlap with instruments used to assess mental disorders like anxiety disorders (especially social anxiety disorder) and mood disorders (especially major depressive disorder), which can sometimes confound efforts to interpret N scores and makes it difficult to determine whether each of neuroticism and the overlapping mental disorders might cause the other, or if both might stem from other causes. Correlations can be identified. [9]

A 2013 meta-analysis found that a wide range of clinical mental disorders are associated with elevated levels of neuroticism compared to levels in the general population. [25] [26] It found that high neuroticism is predictive for the development of anxiety disorders, major depressive disorder, psychosis, and schizophrenia, and is predictive but less so for substance use and non-specific mental distress. [2] These associations are smaller after adjustment for elevated baseline symptoms of the mental illnesses and psychiatric history. [2]

Neuroticism has also been found to be associated with older age. In 2007, Mroczek & Spiro found that among older men, upward trends in neuroticism over life as well as increased neuroticism overall both contributed to higher mortality rates. [27]

Mood disorders

Disorders associated with elevated neuroticism include mood disorders, such as depression and bipolar disorder, anxiety disorders, eating disorders, schizophrenia and schizoaffective disorder, dissociative identity disorder, and hypochondriasis. Mood disorders tend to have a much larger association with neuroticism than most other disorders. [2] [25] The five big studies have described children and adolescents with high neuroticism as "anxious, vulnerable, tense, easily frightened, 'falling apart' under stress, guilt-prone, moody, low in frustration tolerance, and insecure in relationships with others", which includes both traits concerning the prevalence of negative emotions as well as the response to these negative emotions. [28] Neuroticism in adults similarly was found to be associated with the frequency of self-reported problems. [28]

These associations can vary with culture: for example, Adams found that among upper-middle-class American teenaged girls, neuroticism was associated with eating disorders and self-harm, but among Ghanaian teenaged girls, higher neuroticism was associated with magical thinking and extreme fear of enemies. [27]

Personality disorders

A 2004 meta-analysis attempted to analyze personality disorders in light of the five-factor personality theory and found that elevated neuroticism is correlated with many personality disorders. [29]

Theories of causation

Mental-noise hypothesis

Studies have found that the mean reaction times will not differ between individuals high in neuroticism and those low in neuroticism, but that, with individuals high in neuroticism, there is considerably more trial-to-trial variability in performance reflected in reaction time standard deviations. In other words, on some trials neurotic individuals are faster than average, and on others they are slower than average. It has been suggested that this variability reflects noise in the individual's information processing systems or instability of basic cognitive operations (such as regulation processes), and further that this noise originates from two sources: mental preoccupations and reactivity processes. [30]

Flehmig et al. (2007) studied mental noise in terms of everyday behaviours using the Cognitive Failures Questionnaire, which is a self-report measure of the frequency of slips and lapses of attention. A "slip" is an error by commission, and a "lapse" is an error by omission. This scale was correlated with two well-known measures of neuroticism, the BIS/BAS scale and the Eysenck Personality Questionnaire. Results indicated that the CFQ-UA (Cognitive Failures Questionnaire- Unintended Activation) subscale was most strongly correlated with neuroticism (r = .40)[ clarification needed ] and explained the most variance (16%) compared to overall CFQ scores, which only explained 7%. The authors interpret these findings as suggesting that mental noise is "highly specific in nature" as it is related most strongly to attention slips triggered endogenously by associative memory. In other words, this may suggest that mental noise is mostly task-irrelevant cognitions such as worries and preoccupations. [31]

Evolutionary psychology

The theory of evolution may also explain differences in personality. [32] For example, one of the evolutionary approaches to depression focuses on neuroticism and finds that heightened reactivity to negative outcomes may have had a survival benefit, and that furthermore a positive relationship has been found between neuroticism level and success in university with the precondition that the negative effects of neuroticism are also successfully coped with. [33] Likewise, a heightened reactivity to positive events may have had reproductive advantages, selecting for heightened reactivity generally. [25] Nettle contends that evolution selected for higher levels of neuroticism until the negative effects of neuroticism outweighed its benefits, resulting in selection for a certain optimal level of neuroticism. This type of selection will result in a normal distribution of neuroticism, so the extremities of the distribution will be individuals with excessive neuroticism or too low neuroticism for what is optimal, and the ones with excessive neuroticism would therefore be more vulnerable to the negative effects of depression, and Nettle gives this as the explanation for the existence of depression rather than hypothesizing, as others have, that depression itself has any evolutionary benefit. [33]

Terror management theory

According to terror management theory (TMT) neuroticism is primarily caused by insufficient anxiety buffers against unconscious death anxiety. [34] These buffers consist of:

  1. Cultural worldviews that impart life with a sense of enduring meaning, such as social continuity beyond one's death, future legacy and afterlife beliefs.
  2. A sense of personal value, or the self-esteem in the cultural worldview context, an enduring sense of meaning.

While TMT agrees with standard evolutionary psychology accounts that the roots of neuroticism in Homo sapiens or its ancestors are likely in adaptive sensitivities to negative outcomes, it posits that once Homo sapiens achieved a higher level of self-awareness, neuroticism increased enormously, becoming largely a spandrel, a non-adaptive byproduct of our adaptive intelligence, which resulted in a crippling awareness of death that threatened to undermine other adaptive functions. This overblown anxiety thus needed to be buffered via intelligently creative, but largely fictitious and arbitrary notions of cultural meaning and personal value. Since highly religious or supernatural conceptions of the world provide "cosmic" personal significance and literal immortality, they are deemed to offer the most efficient buffers against death anxiety and neuroticism. Thus, historically, the shift to more materialistic and secular cultures—starting in the neolithic, and culminating in the Industrial Revolution—is deemed to have increased neuroticism. [34]

Genetic and environmental factors

A 2013 review found that "Neuroticism is the product of the interplay between genetic and environmental influences. Heritability estimates typically range from 40% to 60%." [3] The effect size of these genetic differences remain largely the same throughout development, but the hunt for any specific genes that control neuroticism levels has "turned out to be difficult and hardly successful so far." [3] On the other hand, with regards to environmental influences, adversities during development such as "emotional neglect and sexual abuse" were found to be positively associated with neuroticism. [3] However, "sustained change in neuroticism and mental health are rather rare or have only small effects." [3]

In the July 1951 article: "The Inheritance of Neuroticism" by Hans J. Eysenck and Donald Prell it was reported that some 80 per cent of individual differences in neuroticism are due to heredity and only 20 percent are due to environment....the factor of neuroticism is not a statistical artifact, but constitutes a biological unit which is inherited as a whole....neurotic predisposition is to a large extent hereditarily determined. [35]

In children and adolescents, psychologists speak of temperamental negative affectivity that, during adolescence, develops into the neuroticism personality domain. [27] Mean neuroticism levels change throughout the lifespan as a function of personality maturation and social roles, [36] [37] but also the expression of new genes. [38] Neuroticism in particular was found to decrease as a result of maturity by decreasing through age 40 and then leveling off. [27] Generally speaking, the influence of environments on neuroticism increases over the lifespan, [38] although people probably select and evoke experiences based on their neuroticism levels. [28]

The emergent field of "imaging genetics", which investigates the role of genetic variation in the structure and function of the brain, has studied certain genes suggested to be related to neuroticism, and the one studied so far concerning this topic has been the serotonin transporter-linked promoter region gene known as 5-HTTLPR, which is transcribed into a serotonin transporter that removes serotonin. [25] It has been found that compared to the long (l) variant of 5-HTTLPR, the short (s) variant has reduced promoter activity, and the first study on this subject has shown that the presence of the s-variant 5-HTTLPR has been found to result in higher amygdala activity from seeing angry or fearful faces while doing a non-emotional task, with further studies confirming that the s-variant 5-HTTLPR result greater amygdala activity in response to negative stimuli, but there have also been null findings. [25] A meta-analysis of 14 studies has shown that this gene has a moderate effect size and accounts for 10% of the phenotypic difference. However, the relationship between brain activity and genetics may not be completely straightforward due to other factors, with suggestions made that cognitive control and stress may moderate the effect of the gene. There are two models that have been proposed to explain the type of association between the 5-HTTLPR gene and amygdala activity: the "phasic activation" model proposes that the gene controls amygdala activity levels in response to stress, whereas the "tonic activation" model, on the other hand, proposes that the gene controls baseline amygdala activity. Another gene that has been suggested for further study to be related to neuroticism is the catechol-O-methyltransferase (COMT) gene. [25]

The anxiety and maladaptive stress responses that are aspects of neuroticism have been the subject of intensive study. Dysregulation of hypothalamic–pituitary–adrenal axis and glucocorticoid system, and influence of different versions of the serotonin transporter and 5-HT1A receptor genes may influence the development of neuroticism in combination with environmental effects like the quality of upbringing. [25] [29]

Neuroimaging studies with fMRI have had mixed results, with some finding that increased activity in the amygdala and anterior cingulate cortex, brain regions associated with arousal, is correlated with high neuroticism scores, as is activation of the associations have also been found with the medial prefrontal cortex, insular cortex, and hippocampus, while other studies have found no correlations. [25] [39] Further studies have been conducted trying to tighten experimental design by using genetics to add additional differentiation among participants, as well as twin study models. [25]

A related trait, behavioral inhibition, or "inhibition to the unfamiliar", has received attention as the trait concerning withdrawal or fear from unfamiliar situations, which is generally measured through observation of child behavior in response to, for example, encountering unfamiliar individuals. This trait in particular has been hypothesized to be related to amygdala function, but the evidence so far has been mixed. [28]

Epidemiology

A research over large samples has shown that levels of neuroticism are higher in women than men. [25] Neuroticism is also found to decrease slightly with age. [40] The same study noted that no functional MRI studies have yet been performed to investigate these differences, calling for more research. [25] A 2010 review found personality differences between genders to be between "small and moderate", the largest of those differences being in the traits of agreeableness and neuroticism. [41] Many personality traits were found to have had larger personality differences between men and women in developed countries compared to less developed countries, and differences in three traits—extraversion, neuroticism, and people-versus-thing orientation—showed differences that remained consistent across different levels of economic development, which is also consistent with the "possible influence of biologic factors." [41] Three cross-cultural studies have revealed higher levels of female neuroticism across almost all nations. [41]

A 2016 review investigated the geographic issue; it found that in US, neuroticism is highest in the mid-Atlantic states and southwards but declines westward, while openness to experience is highest in ethnically diverse regions of the mid-Atlantic, New England, the West Coast, and cities. Likewise, in the UK neuroticism is lowest in urban areas. Generally, geographical studies find correlations between low neuroticism and entrepreneurship and economic vitality and correlations between high neuroticism and poor health outcomes. The review found that the causal relationship between regional cultural and economic conditions and psychological health is unclear. [42]

A 2013 review found that a high level of neuroticism in young adults is a risk factor for triggering mood disorders. Neuroticism is also a possible risk factor for developing an addiction disorder to internet. [43] Investigation of the Instagram users showed the preference of cosmetic products and intolerance of weapons among highly neurotic users. [44]

There is a strong correlation between bruxism and neuroticism. More severe bruxism is associated with a higher degree of neuroticism. [45]

Maladaptive (risky) behaviors

When neuroticism is described as a personality trait that measures emotional stability, research has indicated that it is also involved in maladaptive behaviors to regulate an individual's emotions. [46] High levels of neuroticism in an individual is associated with anxiety and overthinking, as well as irritability and impulsiveness. [47] Studies have shown that individuals with higher levels of neuroticism are associated with a shortened life span, a greater likelihood of divorce, and a lack of education. [48] To cope with the negative emotionality, these individuals may engage in maladaptive forms of coping, such as procrastination, substance abuse, etc. With these internal pressures, due to these negative emotions, neuroticism often relates to difficulties with emotion regulation, leading to engagement in divergent (risky) behaviors. [49]

Due to the facets associated with neuroticism, it can be viewed as a negative personality trait. A common perception of the personality trait most closely associated with risky behaviors is extraversion, due to the correlated adjectives such as adventurous, enthusiastic, and outgoing. [50] These adjectives allow the individual to feel the positive emotions associated with risk-taking. However, neuroticism can also be a contributing factor, just for different reasons. As anxiety is one of the facets of neuroticism, it can lead to indulgence in anxiety-based maladaptive and risky behaviors. [51] Neuroticism is considerably stable over time, and research has shown that individuals with higher levels of neuroticism may prefer short-term solutions, such as risky behaviors, and neglect the long-term costs. [52]

This is relevant to neuroticism because it is also associated with impulsivity. One of the distinct traits of impulsivity is called urgency, which is a predisposition to experiencing strong impulses that can lead to impulsive behavior, while dealing with the negative emotions attached. Urgency can be both negative and positive; positive urgency deals with positive emotions and the contrast for negative urgency. [53] [54] [55] Despite the negative emotions that are prominent in neuroticism, research indicates that it is combination of the negative emotions present, together with the positive emotions that are generated by the engagement in maladaptive behaviors.

See also

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Anxiety</span> Unpleasant state of inner turmoil over anticipated events

Anxiety is an emotion which is characterised by an unpleasant state of inner turmoil and includes feelings of dread over anticipated events. Anxiety is different from fear in that fear is defined as the emotional response to a present threat, whereas anxiety is the anticipation of a future one. It is often accompanied by nervous behavior such as pacing back and forth, somatic complaints, and rumination.

In psychology, a mood is an affective state. In contrast to emotions or feelings, moods are less specific, less intense and less likely to be provoked or instantiated by a particular stimulus or event. Moods are typically described as having either a positive or negative valence. In other words, people usually talk about being in a good mood or a bad mood. There are many different factors that influence mood, and these can lead to positive or negative effects on mood.

Personality is any person's collection of interrelated behavioral, cognitive and emotional patterns that comprise a person’s unique adjustment to life. These interrelated patterns are relatively stable, but can change over long time periods.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Job satisfaction</span> Attitude of a person towards work

Job satisfaction, employee satisfaction or work satisfaction is a measure of workers' contentment with their job, whether they like the job or individual aspects or facets of jobs, such as nature of work or supervision. Job satisfaction can be measured in cognitive (evaluative), affective, and behavioral components. Researchers have also noted that job satisfaction measures vary in the extent to which they measure feelings about the job. or cognitions about the job.

In psychology, trait theory is an approach to the study of human personality. Trait theorists are primarily interested in the measurement of traits, which can be defined as habitual patterns of behavior, thought, and emotion. According to this perspective, traits are aspects of personality that are relatively stable over time, differ across individuals, are relatively consistent over situations, and influence behaviour. Traits are in contrast to states, which are more transitory dispositions.

Conscientiousness is the personality trait of being responsible, careful, or diligent. Conscientiousness implies a desire to do a task well, and to take obligations to others seriously. Conscientious people tend to be efficient and organized as opposed to easy-going and disorderly. They tend to show self-discipline, act dutifully, and aim for achievement; they display planned rather than spontaneous behavior; and they are generally dependable. Conscientiousness manifests in characteristic behaviors such as being neat, systematic, careful, thorough, and deliberate.

Perfectionism, in psychology, is a broad personality trait characterized by a person's concern with striving for flawlessness and perfection and is accompanied by critical self-evaluations and concerns regarding others' evaluations. It is best conceptualized as a multidimensional and multilayered personality characteristic, and initially some psychologists thought that there were many positive and negative aspects.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Big Five personality traits</span> Personality model consisting of five broad dimensions

In trait theory, the Big Five personality traits are a group of five unique characteristics used to study personality:

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Diathesis–stress model</span> Psychological theory

The diathesis-stress model, also known as the vulnerability–stress model, is a psychological theory that attempts to explain a disorder, or its trajectory, as the result of an interaction between a predispositional vulnerability, the diathesis, and stress caused by life experiences. The term diathesis derives from the Greek term (διάθεσις) for a predisposition or sensibility. A diathesis can take the form of genetic, psychological, biological, or situational factors. A large range of differences exists among individuals' vulnerabilities to the development of a disorder.

Personality development encompasses the dynamic construction and deconstruction of integrative characteristics that distinguish an individual in terms of interpersonal behavioral traits. Personality development is ever-changing and subject to contextual factors and life-altering experiences. Personality development is also dimensional in description and subjective in nature. That is, personality development can be seen as a continuum varying in degrees of intensity and change. It is subjective in nature because its conceptualization is rooted in social norms of expected behavior, self-expression, and personal growth. The dominant viewpoint in personality psychology indicates that personality emerges early and continues to develop across one's lifespan. Adult personality traits are believed to have a basis in infant temperament, meaning that individual differences in disposition and behavior appear early in life, potentially before language of conscious self-representation develop. The Five Factor Model of personality maps onto the dimensions of childhood temperament. This suggests that individual differences in levels of the corresponding personality traits are present from young ages.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Affective events theory</span> Psychological model

Affective events theory (AET) is an industrial and organizational psychology model developed by organizational psychologists Howard M. Weiss and Russell Cropanzano to explain how emotions and moods influence job performance and job satisfaction. The model explains the linkages between employees' internal influences and their reactions to incidents that occur in their work environment that affect their performance, organizational commitment, and job satisfaction. The theory proposes that affective work behaviors are explained by employee mood and emotions, while cognitive-based behaviors are the best predictors of job satisfaction. The theory proposes that positive-inducing as well as negative-inducing emotional incidents at work are distinguishable and have a significant psychological impact upon workers' job satisfaction. This results in lasting internal and external affective reactions exhibited through job performance, job satisfaction, and organizational commitment.

Dispositional affect, similar to mood, is a personality trait or overall tendency to respond to situations in stable, predictable ways. This trait is expressed by the tendency to see things in a positive or negative way. People with high positive affectivity tend to perceive things through "pink lens" while people with high negative affectivity tend to perceive things through "black lens". The level of dispositional affect affects the sensations and behavior immediately and most of the time in unconscious ways, and its effect can be prolonged. Research shows that there is a correlation between dispositional affect and important aspects in psychology and social science, such as personality, culture, decision making, negotiation, psychological resilience, perception of career barriers, and coping with stressful life events. That is why this topic is important both in social psychology research and organizational psychology research.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Rumination (psychology)</span> Focused attention

Rumination is the focused attention on the symptoms of one's mental distress. In 1998, Nolen-Hoeksema proposed the Response Styles Theory., which is the most widely used conceptualization model of rumination. However, other theories, have proposed different definitions for rumination. For example, in the Goal Progress Theory, rumination is conceptualized not as a reaction to a mood state, but as a "response to failure to progress satisfactorily towards a goal". According to multiple studies, rumination is a mechanism that develop and sustain psychopathology conditions such as anxiety, depression, and other negative mental disorders.However, its measures have not been unified. Multiple tools exist to measure ruminative thoughts. Treatments specifically addressing ruminative thought patterns are still in the early stages of development.

Positive affectivity (PA) is a human characteristic that describes how much people experience positive affects ; and as a consequence how they interact with others and with their surroundings.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Negative affectivity</span> Personality variable

Negative affectivity (NA), or negative affect, is a personality variable that involves the experience of negative emotions and poor self-concept. Negative affectivity subsumes a variety of negative emotions, including anger, contempt, disgust, guilt, fear, and nervousness. Low negative affectivity is characterized by frequent states of calmness and serenity, along with states of confidence, activeness, and great enthusiasm.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Extraversion and introversion</span> Personality trait

Extraversion and introversion are a central trait dimension in human personality theory. The terms were introduced into psychology by Carl Jung, though both the popular understanding and current psychological usage are not the same as Jung's original concept. Extraversion tends to be manifested in outgoing, talkative, energetic behavior, whereas introversion is manifested in more reflective and reserved behavior. Jung defined introversion as an "attitude-type characterised by orientation in life through subjective psychic contents", and extraversion as "an attitude-type characterised by concentration of interest on the external object".

Meta-mood is a term used by psychologists to refer to an individual's awareness of their emotions. The term was first utilized by John D. Mayer and Peter Salovey who believed the experience of mood involved "direct" and "indirect" components. While the direct level refers to the simple appearance of mood - happiness, fear, anger, sadness, and surprise, the indirect level, or the meta-mood experience, does not solely consist of the emotions experienced by an individual in the moment. Rather, it is a reflective state which involves additional thoughts and feelings about the mood itself. "I shouldn’t feel this way" or "I am thinking of ways to improve my mood" are examples of reflective thoughts during a meta-mood experience.

The biopsychological theory of personality is a model of the general biological processes relevant for human psychology, behavior, and personality. The model, proposed by research psychologist Jeffrey Alan Gray in 1970, is well-supported by subsequent research and has general acceptance among professionals.

Personality change refers to the different forms of change in various aspects of personality. These changes include how we experience things, how our perception of experiences changes, and how we react in situations. An individual's personality may stay somewhat consistent throughout their life. Still, more often than not, everyone undergoes some form of change to their personality in their lifetime.

Intelligence and personality have traditionally been studied as separate entities in psychology, but more recent work has increasingly challenged this view. An increasing number of studies have recently explored the relationship between intelligence and personality, in particular the Big Five personality traits.

References

  1. 1 2 3 4 Thompson ER (October 2008). "Development and Validation of an International English Big-Five Mini-Markers". Personality and Individual Differences. 45 (6): 542–548. doi:10.1016/j.paid.2008.06.013.
  2. 1 2 3 4 Jeronimus BF, Kotov R, Riese H, Ormel J (October 2016). "Neuroticism's prospective association with mental disorders halves after adjustment for baseline symptoms and psychiatric history, but the adjusted association hardly decays with time: a meta-analysis on 59 longitudinal/prospective studies with 443 313 participants". Psychological Medicine. 46 (14): 2883–2906. doi:10.1017/S0033291716001653. PMID   27523506. S2CID   23548727.
  3. 1 2 3 4 5 Ormel J, Jeronimus BF, Kotov R, Riese H, Bos EH, Hankin B, et al. (July 2013). "Neuroticism and common mental disorders: meaning and utility of a complex relationship". Clinical Psychology Review. 33 (5): 686–697. doi:10.1016/j.cpr.2013.04.003. PMC   4382368 . PMID   23702592.
  4. ↑ Carducci BJ (2009-02-20). The Psychology of Personality: Viewpoints, Research, and Applications. John Wiley & Sons. pp. 173–174. ISBN   978-1-4051-3635-8.
  5. 1 2 DeNeve KM, Cooper H (September 1998). "The happy personality: a meta-analysis of 137 personality traits and subjective well-being". Psychological Bulletin. 124 (2): 197–229. doi:10.1037/0033-2909.124.2.197. PMID   9747186.
  6. ↑ Passer MW, Smith RE (2009). Psychology: the science of mind and behaviour. McGraw-Hill Higher Education. ISBN   978-0-07-711836-5.
  7. ↑ Widiger, Thomas A.; Oltmanns, Joshua R. (June 2017). "Neuroticism is a fundamental domain of personality with enormous public health implications". World Psychiatry. 16 (2): 144–145. doi:10.1002/wps.20411. PMC   5428182 .{{cite journal}}: |access-date= requires |url= (help)
  8. ↑ Ormel, Johan; Jeronimus, Bertus F.; Kotov, Roman; Riese, Harriëtte; Bos, Elisabeth H.; Hankin, Benjamin; Rosmalen, Judith G.M.; Oldehinkel, Albertine J. (July 2013). "Neuroticism and common mental disorders: Meaning and utility of a complex relationship". Clinical Psychology Review. 33 (5): 686–697. doi:10.1016/j.cpr.2013.04.003. PMC   4382368 .{{cite journal}}: |access-date= requires |url= (help)
  9. 1 2 3 4 Ormel J, Riese H, Rosmalen JG (February 2012). "Interpreting neuroticism scores across the adult life course: immutable or experience-dependent set points of negative affect?". Clinical Psychology Review. 32 (1): 71–79. doi:10.1016/j.cpr.2011.10.004. hdl: 11370/0cbc5f60-c030-4588-99b8-2b63ac9797a8 . PMID   22172577.
  10. 1 2 Goldberg LR, Johnson JA, Eber HW, et al. (2006). "The international personality item pool and the future of public-domain personality measures". Journal of Research in Personality. 40 (1): 84–96. doi:10.1016/j.jrp.2005.08.007. S2CID   13274640.
  11. ↑ Goldberg LR (1992). "The development of markers for the Big-Five factor structure". Psychological Assessment. 4 (1): 26–42. doi:10.1037/1040-3590.4.1.26. S2CID   144709415.
  12. ↑ Saucier G (December 1994). "Mini-markers: a brief version of Goldberg's unipolar big-five markers". Journal of Personality Assessment. 63 (3): 506–516. doi:10.1207/s15327752jpa6303_8. PMID   7844738.
  13. ↑ Piedmont RL, Chae JH (1997). "Cross-cultural generalizability of the five-factor model of personality - Development and validation of the NEO PI-R for Koreans". Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology. 28 (2): 131–155. doi:10.1177/0022022197282001. S2CID   145053137.
  14. ↑ Gray, J.A. (1981). A critique of Eysenck's theory of personality, In H.J. Eysenck (Ed.) A model for personality (pp 246–276)
  15. ↑ Gray, J.A. (1982). The neuropsychology of anxiety: An enquiry into the functions of the septo-hippocampal system.
  16. ↑ Boksem MA, Tops M, Wester AE, Meijman TF, Lorist MM (July 2006). "Error-related ERP components and individual differences in punishment and reward sensitivity". Brain Research. 1101 (1): 92–101. doi:10.1016/j.brainres.2006.05.004. hdl: 1874/19738 . PMID   16784728. S2CID   17629273.
  17. ↑ Carver CS, White TL (1994). "Behavioral Inhibition, Behavioral Activation, and Affective Responses to Impending Reward and Punishment: The BIS/BAS Scales". Journal of Personality and Social Psychology . 67 (2): 319–333. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.67.2.319. S2CID   6452203.
  18. 1 2 3 Judge TA, Locke EA, Durham CC (1997). "The dispositional causes of job satisfaction: A core evaluations approach". Research in Organizational Behavior. 19: 151–188.
  19. ↑ Bono J. E.; Judge T. A. (2003). "Core self-evaluations: A review of the trait and its role in job satisfaction and job performance". European Journal of Personality. 17 (Suppl 1): S5–S18. doi:10.1002/per.481. S2CID   32495455.
  20. ↑ Dormann C.; Fay D.; Zapf D.; Frese M. (2006). "A state-trait analysis of job satisfaction: On the effect of core self-evaluations". Applied Psychology: An International Review. 55 (1): 27–51. doi:10.1111/j.1464-0597.2006.00227.x.
  21. ↑ Judge TA, Locke EA, Durham CC, Kluger AN (February 1998). "Dispositional effects on job and life satisfaction: the role of core evaluations". The Journal of Applied Psychology. 83 (1): 17–34. doi:10.1037/0021-9010.83.1.17. PMID   9494439.
  22. ↑ Judge TA, Bono JE (February 2001). "Relationship of core self-evaluations traits--self-esteem, generalized self-efficacy, locus of control, and emotional stability--with job satisfaction and job performance: a meta-analysis". The Journal of Applied Psychology. 86 (1): 80–92. doi:10.1037/0021-9010.86.1.80. PMID   11302235. S2CID   6612810.
  23. ↑ "The role of neuroticism in startle reactions to fearful and disgusting stimuli" (PDF).
  24. ↑ Corr PJ, Wilson GD, Fotiadou M, Kumari V, Gray NS, Checkley S, Gray JA (1995-10-01). "Personality and affective modulation of the startle reflex". Personality and Individual Differences. 19 (4): 543–553. doi:10.1016/0191-8869(95)00059-F. ISSN   0191-8869.
  25. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 Ormel J, Bastiaansen A, Riese H, Bos EH, Servaas M, Ellenbogen M, et al. (January 2013). "The biological and psychological basis of neuroticism: current status and future directions". Neuroscience and Biobehavioral Reviews. 37 (1): 59–72. doi:10.1016/j.neubiorev.2012.09.004. PMID   23068306. S2CID   29218082. ... two groups that have both been associated with elevated N scores – healthy women relative to men (Ellenbogen et al., 1996), and young adults at high risk for affective disorders (p62)... This is a robust finding that is consistent across cultures (Costa et al., 2001). This is especially the case during the reproductive years, but is also visible in children and elderly (Jorm, 1987). ... Clearly, the issue of sex differences in neuroticism and the implications for understanding N's neurobiological basis deserve more detailed and systematic investigation. (p65)
  26. ↑ Kotov R, Gamez W, Schmidt F, Watson D (September 2010). "Linking "big" personality traits to anxiety, depressive, and substance use disorders: a meta-analysis". Psychological Bulletin. 136 (5): 768–821. doi:10.1037/a0020327. PMID   20804236.
  27. 1 2 3 4 McAdams DP, Olson BD (2010). "Personality development: continuity and change over the life course". Annual Review of Psychology. 61: 517–542. doi:10.1146/annurev.psych.093008.100507. PMID   19534589.
  28. 1 2 3 4 Caspi A, Shiner R (2011). Rutter M, Bishop DV, Pine DS, Scott S, Stevenson J, Taylor E, Thapar A (eds.). Temperament and Personality, in Rutter's Child and Adolescent Psychiatry (5th ed). Malden: Blackwell Publishing Limited. p.  182. doi:10.1002/9781444300895. ISBN   9781444300895.
  29. 1 2 Depue RA, Fu Y (June 2011). "Neurogenetic and experiential processes underlying major personality traits: implications for modelling personality disorders". International Review of Psychiatry. 23 (3): 258–281. doi:10.3109/09540261.2011.599315. PMID   21923227. S2CID   35109994.
  30. ↑ Robinson MD, Tamir M (July 2005). "Neuroticism as mental noise: a relation between neuroticism and reaction time standard deviations". Journal of Personality and Social Psychology. 89 (1): 107–114. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.89.1.107. PMID   16060749.
  31. ↑ Flehmig HC, Steinborn M, Langner R, Westhoff K (2007). "Neuroticism and the mental noise hypothesis: Relationships to lapses of attention and slips of action in everyday life". Psychology Science. 49 (4): 343–360. S2CID   49325040.
  32. ↑ Buss DM (1991). "Evolutionary personality psychology". Annual Review of Psychology. 42: 459–491. doi:10.1146/annurev.psych.42.1.459. PMID   2018400.
  33. 1 2 Allen NB, Badcock PB (July 2006). "Darwinian models of depression: a review of evolutionary accounts of mood and mood disorders". Progress in Neuro-Psychopharmacology & Biological Psychiatry. 30 (5): 815–826. doi:10.1016/j.pnpbp.2006.01.007. PMID   16647176. S2CID   5954047.
  34. 1 2 Pyszczynski T, Solomon S, Greenberg J (January 2015). "Thirty years of terror management theory: From genesis to revelation". Advances in Experimental Social Psychology. 52. Academic Press: 1–70. doi:10.1016/bs.aesp.2015.03.001.
  35. ↑ Eysenck HJ, Prell DB (July 1951). "The inheritance of neuroticism: an experimental study". The Journal of Mental Science. 97 (408): 441–465. doi:10.1192/bjp.97.408.441. PMID   14861606.
  36. ↑ Roberts BW, Walton KE, Viechtbauer W (January 2006). "Patterns of mean-level change in personality traits across the life course: a meta-analysis of longitudinal studies". Psychological Bulletin. 132 (1): 1–25. doi:10.1037/0033-2909.132.1.1. PMID   16435954. S2CID   16606495.
  37. ↑ McCrae RR, Costa PT, Pedroso de Lima M, Simões A, Ostendorf F, Angleitner A, et al. (March 1999). "Age differences in personality across the adult life span: parallels in five cultures". Developmental Psychology. 35 (2): 466–477. doi:10.1037/0012-1649.35.2.466. PMID   10082017.
  38. 1 2 Briley DA, Tucker-Drob EM (September 2014). "Genetic and environmental continuity in personality development: a meta-analysis". Psychological Bulletin. 140 (5): 1303–1331. doi:10.1037/a0037091. PMC   4152379 . PMID   24956122.
  39. ↑ Servaas MN, van der Velde J, Costafreda SG, Horton P, Ormel J, Riese H, Aleman A (September 2013). "Neuroticism and the brain: a quantitative meta-analysis of neuroimaging studies investigating emotion processing". Neuroscience and Biobehavioral Reviews. 37 (8): 1518–1529. doi:10.1016/j.neubiorev.2013.05.005. PMID   23685122. S2CID   39700528.
  40. ↑ Donnellan MB, Lucas RE (September 2008). "Age differences in the Big Five across the life span: evidence from two national samples". Psychology and Aging. 23 (3): 558–566. doi:10.1037/a0012897. PMC   2562318 . PMID   18808245.
  41. 1 2 3 Lippa RA (November 2010). "Gender Differences in Personality and Interests: When, Where, and Why?: Gender Differences in Personality and Interests". Social and Personality Psychology Compass. 4 (11): 1098–1110. doi:10.1111/j.1751-9004.2010.00320.x.
  42. ↑ Rentfrow PJ (April 2020). "Geographical psychology". Current Opinion in Psychology. 32 (6): 165–170. doi:10.1177/0963721416658446. PMID   31675524. S2CID   151745822.
  43. ↑ Marciano L, Camerini AL, Schulz PJ (2020). "Neuroticism in the digital age: A meta-analysis". Computers in Human Behavior Reports. 2: 100026. doi: 10.1016/j.chbr.2020.100026 . S2CID   221877396.
  44. ↑ "Red Is Open-Minded, Blue Is Conscientious: Predicting User Traits From Instagram Image Data" (PDF). aclanthology.org. Retrieved May 13, 2022.
  45. ↑ Cruz-Fierro N, Martínez-Fierro M, Cerda-Flores RM, Gómez-Govea MA, Delgado-Enciso I, Martínez-De-Villarreal LE, et al. (March 2018). "The phenotype, psychotype and genotype of bruxism". Biomedical Reports. 8 (3): 264–268. doi:10.3892/br.2018.1041. PMC   5867466 . PMID   29599979.
  46. ↑ Cooper ML, Agocha VB, Sheldon MS (December 2000). "A motivational perspective on risky behaviors: the role of personality and affect regulatory processes". Journal of Personality. 68 (6): 1059–1088. doi:10.1111/1467-6494.00126. PMID   11130732.
  47. ↑ Pervin LA, John OP (1999). Handbook of personality : theory and research (2nd ed.). New York: Guilford Press. pp. 102–138. ISBN   1-57230-483-9. OCLC   41002887.
  48. ↑ Mroczek DK, Spiro A (May 2007). "Personality change influences mortality in older men". Psychological Science. 18 (5): 371–376. doi:10.1111/j.1467-9280.2007.01907.x. PMC   2643121 . PMID   17576273.
  49. ↑ Kokkonen M, Pulkkinen L (2001). "Extraversion and Neuroticism as antecedents of emotion regulation and dysregulation in adulthood". European Journal of Personality. 15 (6): 407–424. doi:10.1002/per.425. ISSN   0890-2070. S2CID   144358696.
  50. ↑ Pervin LA, John OP (1999). Handbook of personality : theory and research (2nd ed.). New York: Guilford Press. pp. 102–138. ISBN   1-57230-483-9. OCLC   41002887.
  51. ↑ Singh P (2022-01-02). "Emotion Regulation Difficulties Mediate the Relationship between Neuroticism and Health-Risk Behaviours in Adolescents". The Journal of Psychology. 156 (1): 48–67. doi:10.1080/00223980.2021.2006124. PMID   35015628. S2CID   245880039.
  52. ↑ Peters EM, Bowen R, Balbuena L (2020-05-03). "Mood Instability and Trait Anxiety as Distinct Components of Eysenckian Neuroticism With Differential Relations to Impulsivity and Risk Taking". Journal of Personality Assessment. 102 (3): 337–347. doi:10.1080/00223891.2019.1569528. PMID   30907661. S2CID   85498120.
  53. ↑ Cyders MA, Smith GT, Spillane NS, Fischer S, Annus AM, Peterson C (March 2007). "Integration of impulsivity and positive mood to predict risky behavior: development and validation of a measure of positive urgency". Psychological Assessment. 19 (1): 107–118. doi:10.1037/1040-3590.19.1.107. PMID   17371126.
  54. ↑ Cyders MA, Smith GT (November 2008). "Emotion-based dispositions to rash action: positive and negative urgency". Psychological Bulletin. 134 (6): 807–828. doi:10.1037/a0013341. PMC   2705930 . PMID   18954158.
  55. ↑ Cyders MA, Smith GT (2007). "Mood-based rash action and its components: Positive and negative urgency". Personality and Individual Differences. 43 (4): 839–850. doi:10.1016/j.paid.2007.02.008.
This page is based on this Wikipedia article
Text is available under the CC BY-SA 4.0 license; additional terms may apply.
Images, videos and audio are available under their respective licenses.