Mental disorders diagnosed in childhood

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Mental disorders diagnosed in childhood
Specialty Psychiatry

Mental disorders diagnosed in childhood can be neurodevelopmental, emotional, or behavioral disorders. These disorders negatively impact the mental and social wellbeing of a child, and children with these disorders require support from their families and schools. Childhood mental disorders often persist into adulthood. These disorders are usually first diagnosed in infancy, childhood, or adolescence, as laid out in the DSM-5 and in the ICD-11. [1]

Contents

Intellectual disability

DSM-5

The diagnostic criteria necessary in order to diagnose intellectual disability consists of:

A. Deficits in intellectual functions, such as reasoning, problem solving, planning, abstract thinking, and learning. These deficits are confirmed through clinical assessments and individualized standardized tests.
B. Deficits in adaptive functioning that cause failure to perform socio-cultural and developmental standards for independence and social responsibility. Without support, these deficits can lead to limited functioning in areas of daily life, such as in communication and independent living.
C. These symptoms must have onset during the developmental period.

Intellectual disability is specified by severity, with the varying severities being mild, moderate, severe, and profound. These severity levels are determined by how well one is able to function intellectually, socially, and independently. [2]

Cause

Intellectual disability in children can be caused by genetic or environmental factors. The individual could have a natural brain malformation or pre or postnatal damage done to the brain caused by drowning or a traumatic brain injury, for example. Nearly 30 to 50% of individuals with intellectual disability will never know the cause of their diagnosis even after thorough investigation.

Prenatal causes of intellectual disability include:

Single-gene disorders that result in intellectual disability include:

These single-gene disorders are usually associated with atypical physical characteristics. About 1/4 of individuals with intellectual disability have a detectable chromosomal abnormality. Others may have small amounts of deletion or duplication of chromosomes, which may go unnoticed and therefore, undetermined.

Symptoms

As an infant, the individual with intellectual disability might sit up, crawl, or walk later than what is developmentally appropriate. They may have trouble talking or learn to talk late. The infants with intellectual disability will probably have trouble learning to potty train, feeding themselves, remembering things, with problem-solving, and may have recurrent explosive tantrums.

Some symptoms that a child with intellectual disability might show are continued infant-like behavior, a lack of curiosity, the inability to meet educational demands, learning ability that is below average, and the failure to meet developmentally appropriate intellectual goals. Some children with severe intellectual disability may have seizures, mobility problems, vision problem, or hearing problems.

Treatment

There is no treatment for intellectual disability but there are plenty of services offered for those diagnosed to help them function in their everyday lives. Professionals will sometimes work out an Individualized Family Service Plan (IFSP), which documents the child's needs, as well as the services that would best help them specifically. Speech, physical, and occupational therapy may be offered. Intellectually disabled children can be placed in special education classes through the public school system, where the school and parents will map out an Individualized Education Program (IEP). This program lays out all of the services and classes the child will become involved in during their time in school.

Learning disorders

DSM-5

The DSM-5 has the diagnosis of Specific Learning Disorder, which is a disorder where one has difficulties in being able to learn and use academic skills. Specific learning disorder has specifiers for the areas that one faces difficulties in, with those specifiers being impairment in reading, impairment in writing, and impairment in mathematics. [2]

Cause

Learning disorders are believed to be caused by a nervous system abnormality. The abnormality could either be in the structure of the brain or in the functioning of chemicals in the brain. Because of this, individual has problems receiving, processing or communicating information normally. Some causes of the nervous system abnormality include problems during pregnancy, birth or early infancy, brain trauma at a young age, exposure to toxins, and prematurity. [4]

Symptoms

Children with a learning disorder may display the following traits:

Treatment

There is no treatment that can cure a learning disorder, but intervention and accommodations can help those with learning disorders cope with the difficulties they may face. Special education programs in schools are able to give children with learning disorders an environment that is more appropriate for them and minimizes the issues they may face in a standard classroom. Individual education programs (IEPs) are also used in order to give children specific accommodations for their personal difficulties. [5]

Motor disorders

DSM-5

The motor disorders described in the DSM-5 are Developmental Coordination Disorder and Stereotypic Movement Disorder. Developmental Coordination Disorder is a disorder where one's acquisition and ability to perform motor skills is below the level that is normal for someone their age. These difficulties with motor skills may include clumsiness, slowness, or inability to correctly perform motor tasks. Stereotypic Movement Disorder is characterized by repetitive motions that are seemingly driven and purposeless. These repetitive movements lead to disruptions in daily life, and may possibly be self-injurious.

Cause

The cause behind motor disorders is not exact, but the cause is usually genetic or environmental. Motor skills disorders are often associated with physiological or developmental abnormalities including ADHD, learning disorders, developmental disabilities and prematurity. [6]

Symptoms

In infants, some babies may be hypotonia, a loose and floppy baby, or hypertonia, a stiff and rigid baby. Toddlers may have trouble feeding themselves or may stand, sit or walk later than what is developmentally normal. Other signs of motor skills disorders may be children that are clumsy or have excessive accidents, such as knocking things over. Children who have trouble with complex physical activities such as dancing, swimming, catching or throwing a ball, or drawing may avoid these activities completely. [7]

Treatment

Different therapies are offered to children with motor skills disorders to help them improve their motor effectiveness. Many children work with an occupational and physical therapist, as well as educational professionals. This helpful combination is beneficial to the child. Cognitive therapy, sensory integration therapy, and kinesthetic training are often favorable treatment for the child.

Communication disorders

DSM-5

Communication disorders inhibit one's abilities in various areas of communication, such as language, speech, and non-verbal communication. Those with language disorder have deficits in using language, whether it be verbally, written, or signed. These deficits include a limited vocabulary, struggles with sentence structure and forming sentences, and limited ability to be able to describe topics or hold a conversation. Speech sound disorder is a disorder that impairs one's ability to produce sounds correctly and leads to limited speech intelligibility. Childhood-onset fluency disorder, more commonly known as stuttering, disturbs the normal flow and timing of speech. These disturbances may be sound and syllable repetitions, sound prolongations, pauses in the middle of words or speech, excess physical tension when pronouncing words, or the repetitions of one syllable words. Social Communication Disorder is marked by difficulties in being able to communicate appropriately, following rules for conversation (such as taking turns talking), understanding things that are not explicitly said, and understanding non-literal language. All of these disorders disturb one's ability to communicate with others significantly and can interfere with social participation, relationships, or the ability to meet academic and occupational standards. [8]

Cause

The cause of communication disorders in children are usually biological, developmental or environmental. These causes include abnormalities in brain development, exposure to certain toxins during pregnancy, or genetic factors. [9]

Treatment

Speech and language therapists are often very reliable for helping children with communication disorders. Remedial techniques are often used to help the child communicate more and work on their existing problems. Another technique is to help push the child to work on their strengths to improve their communication skills. [10]

Pervasive developmental disorders

DSM-IV-TR

Cause

Pervasive developmental disorders have no known cause yet, but researchers are interested in finding a connection between the disorders and problems in the nervous system. Studies are being done on the brain and spinal cord in children with PDDs to try to find a link.

Symptoms

Children with pervasive developmental disorders may exhibit the following symptoms:

Treatment

A specific treatment plan is usually laid out for the child because of the wide range of behaviors and abilities in each child. Treatment often involves promoting better communication and socializing, and reducing behaviors that can be disruptive. Children with pervasive developmental disorders may be placed in special education classes, receive behavior modification training, speech, physical or occupational therapy, or medication.

Attention-deficit and disruptive behavior disorders

DSM-IV-TR

1. Individuals who meet the criteria for ADHD, Predominantly Inattentive Type, but their age of onset is later than 7 years old.
2. Individuals who present inattentive symptoms and meet the full criteria for the disorder but also have a behavioral pattern that is defined by having low energy, daydreaming, and laziness.

Cause

With ADHD being one of the most common disorders diagnosed in childhood, the causes are often studied, yet still inconclusive. Many researchers say ADHD is caused by genetic factors, yet other studies are being done to expand on the cause. One research study showed that children who carry a certain gene associated with ADHD had a thinner layer of tissue in the areas of the brain associated with attention. As the children grew older, the brain tissue thickened and their ADHD symptoms improved. Environmental factors, such as the mother smoking or drinking during pregnancy is connected to children with ADHD. Children exposed to lead at a young age will also have an increased chance of developing ADHD. Brain injuries could cause ADHD, yet only a small number of children diagnosed fit into this category. Researchers have looked into sugar intake as the cause of ADHD, but have found little to support that theory. [12]

Symptoms

Children with attention deficit and disruptive behavior disorders may show the following symptoms:

Treatment

Medication is often used to treat children with attention-deficit and disruptive behavior disorders. Individualized programs are available for children with these disorders in order to help them function in and complete school. It is the common belief that many of these disorders will disappear as the children get older, but recent research shows that it can carry on into adulthood.

Feeding and eating disorders of infancy or early childhood

DSM-5-TR

Eating disorders that may be diagnosed in childhood include Pica, which is the persistent eating of nonfood substances that is severe enough to require clinical attention, and Rumination Disorder, which is the repeated regurgitation of food. [2]

Cause

There are a number of factors that could potentially contribute to the development of feeding and eating disorders of infancy or early childhood. These factors include:

Symptoms

Physical and emotional changes are often the most indicative symptoms of feeding and eating disorders of infancy or early childhood. The child's growth and development may be delayed due to the lack of necessary nutrients. The child will usually weigh much less than other children. Withdrawal and irritability are often associated with children that are malnourished. [15]

Treatment

Since feeding and eating disorders in children can cause dangerous risks to the child, it is important to seek treatment as soon as possible. Cognitive behavioral therapy can be incredibly beneficial to children with feeding or eating disorders. Family therapy is usually encouraged in order to keep all members involved in nourishing the child.

Tic disorders

DSM-IV-TR

A. Either one or multiple motor and/or vocal tics, for example, motor or vocal noises that are rapid, repeated, sudden, and nonrhythmic.
B. The tics happen multiple times over the course of the day, almost every day for at least 4 weeks, but do not occur continually for any longer than 1 year.
C. Symptoms are present before the age of 18.
D. The tics are not a result of any effects due to drug use, or any other medical condition, for example, Huntington's disease.
E. The individual does not have symptoms that meet the criteria for Tourette's Disorder or Chronic Motor or Vocal Tic Disorder.

Cause

No definitive cause of tic disorders has been declared, but for the most part, the cause lies within biological, chemical, or environmental factors. Studies have shown that abnormal neurotransmitters, such as dopamine and serotonin, which are active in chemical messages in the brain, can serve as a cause of tic disorders. Researchers have also found abnormal changes in certain parts of the brain that cause strain on the blood flow within the brain, which is likely a contributor of tic disorders. 75% of tic disorders have a genetic component. It appears that tic disorders can be caused or worsened by recreational or prescription drug use. Tics can form simply if a person repeats sounds or words they hear over the course of a normal day. [16]

Symptoms

Children with a tic disorder may exhibit the following symptoms:

Treatment

As part of the treatment, family members and friends are advised not to call attention to the tics when the child is performing them. If they do, the child may develop more tics more frequently. Behavioral therapy and medication are often the choices of treatment for tic disorders in children. [17]

Elimination disorders

DSM-IV-TR

Cause

Encopresis: The most common cause of encopresis is constipation. When a child becomes constipated, feces build up in and stretch the rectum. This stretching causes the nerve endings to become dull. The child may not feel when they need to eliminate the feces or if the waste is coming out. Inside the rectum, the feces could become too large or solid to eliminate without feeling pain. While the mass of feces is stuck in the child's rectum, liquid feces could leak from around the mass and out of the child's body. The main causes of constipation are diet, lack of sufficient amounts of water, stress, not enough exercise, and inconsistent bathroom routines. [18]

Enuresis: The cause of enuresis is thought to be unclear and usually is attributed to many factors.

Symptoms

The majority of children with enuresis show no other symptoms besides wetting the bed at night. If other symptoms are present, such as blood stains in their underwear or unusual pain, the child is likely to have a more serious medical problem. Children with encopresis are likely to exhibit symptoms such as; loss of appetite, loose or watery stools, abdominal pain, scratching or itching of anal area because of irritation, withdrawal from friends, or secretive attitude associated with bowel movements. [20]

Treatment

Children usually "grow out" of their elimination disorders by the time they reach their teens. If treatment is necessary, the most effective choice for enuresis is behavior modification, which involves a special pad that the child sleeps on at night. If the pad gets wet, an alarm goes off and the child is directed to go to the bathroom. Stool softeners or laxatives are the choice of treatment for encopresis.

Other disorders of infancy, childhood, or adolescence

DSM-IV-TR

Cause

There are multiple factors that contribute to the cause of other disorders of infancy, childhood, or adolescence. The majority of the factors are going to be physical or environmental. Some of the disorders could be caused by parental influence, such as their inability to properly take care of their child. Most of the other disorders diagnosed in infancy, childhood, or adolescence involve anxiety. If the child is continually put in anxiety producing situations, they could show symptoms of these disorders. Usually, the symptoms will be mild and the child will not get help, which may cause the symptoms to become worse. [21]

Symptoms

Separation anxiety disorder

Selective mutism

Reactive attachment disorder of infancy or early childhood

Stereotypic movement disorder

Treatment

Cognitive behavioral therapy is often used to treat separation anxiety disorder. Family therapy may also be helpful to get to the core of the issue. Systemic desensitization techniques are usually used to help the child get used to being comfortable away from home.

It is important not to "enable" the child with selective mutism by allowing them to remain silent in the social settings that they are uncomfortable in. Both parents and teachers need to be involved in the treatment of selective mutism. The most important factor to remember is that the child does not have a speech disorder; it is an anxiety disorder.

Treatment almost always involves the child and their parents or caregivers parents may need to take parenting skills classes and attend family therapy with the child. Individual therapy with the child and therapist is effective. Another technique is keeping close physical contact between the child and their parents.

Behavioral techniques and psychotherapy are the most effective treatment for children with this disorder. It is important to change the child's environment so that they are unable to harm themselves. Medication is also effective.

Behavioural and emotional disorders with onset usually occurring in childhood and adolescence (ICD-10)

Hyperkinetic disorders

Conduct disorders

Mixed disorders of conduct and emotions

Emotional disorders with onset specific to childhood

Disorders of social functioning with onset specific to childhood and adolescence

Tic disorders

Other behavioural and emotional disorders with onset usually occurring in childhood and adolescence

Perception

Stigma

It is not uncommon for children with mental health disorders to be faced with stigma. Stigma against those with mental health disorders can be seen through stereotyping, prejudice, and discrimination. [22] This stigma can come from the public (those without the disorder) and by oneself (those with the disorder). [23] Both public and self-stigma can diminish the self-esteem of those with mental health disorders; especially children.

Typically, children with mental health disorders are first exposed to stigma within their family unit before later being exposed to it in the school setting and the public. [24] While some may view stigma as a minor problem when looking at the other obstacles children with mental illness may face, others view it as a major problem because of the negative impact it can have on a child's treatment and self perception.

Stigma within the family can cause a delay in the diagnosis of mental health disorders, delaying treatment. [25] It can also cause children to be hesitant in seeking treatment, even when they are experiencing clear mental health symptoms. This is especially true for boys who are more likely than girls to avoid seeking out treatment because of the fear of experiencing stigma. [26]

Controversy and alternatives

There are people such as Thomas Szasz and Peter Breggin who say child psychiatry should be made illegal because behaviours are not diseases. They believe psychiatric drugging is a form of child abuse. Psychotropic medication has been used at an increasing rate over a few decades, and while having limited information on the effects on a child's development, they are used as a first choice for treatment. Comparatively, alternatives such as general, complementary, and need-based therapy aren't utilized as much. A brain in development has different needs in order to function how it is intended, and psychiatric medicine can disrupt and alter that development and lead to more issues or complications. Psychiatric medication has a vast quantity of side effects including but not limited to : Drowsiness, fatigue, weight gain, changes in appetite, sleep disturbances, and disinterest in activities. Alternative treatments are more effective person by person and can be incorporated into regular treatments or to slowly wean off of medication. [27] [28]

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Tourette syndrome</span> Neurodevelopmental disorder involving motor and vocal tics

Tourette syndrome or Tourette's syndrome is a common neurodevelopmental disorder that begins in childhood or adolescence. It is characterized by multiple movement (motor) tics and at least one vocal (phonic) tic. Common tics are blinking, coughing, throat clearing, sniffing, and facial movements. These are typically preceded by an unwanted urge or sensation in the affected muscles known as a premonitory urge, can sometimes be suppressed temporarily, and characteristically change in location, strength, and frequency. Tourette's is at the more severe end of a spectrum of tic disorders. The tics often go unnoticed by casual observers.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder</span> Neurodevelopmental disorder

Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) is a neurodevelopmental disorder characterised by executive dysfunction occasioning symptoms of inattention, hyperactivity, impulsivity and emotional dysregulation that are excessive and pervasive, impairing in multiple contexts, and otherwise age-inappropriate.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Conduct disorder</span> Developmental disorder

Conduct disorder (CD) is a mental disorder diagnosed in childhood or adolescence that presents itself through a repetitive and persistent pattern of behavior that includes theft, lies, physical violence that may lead to destruction, and reckless breaking of rules, in which the basic rights of others or major age-appropriate norms are violated. These behaviors are often referred to as "antisocial behaviors", and is often seen as the precursor to antisocial personality disorder; however, the latter, by definition, cannot be diagnosed until the individual is 18 years old. Conduct disorder may result from parental rejection and neglect and can be treated with family therapy, as well as behavioral modifications and pharmacotherapy. Conduct disorder is estimated to affect 51.1 million people globally as of 2013.

Developmental disorders comprise a group of psychiatric conditions originating in childhood that involve serious impairment in different areas. There are several ways of using this term. The most narrow concept is used in the category "Specific Disorders of Psychological Development" in the ICD-10. These disorders comprise developmental language disorder, learning disorders, developmental coordination disorders, and autism spectrum disorders (ASD). In broader definitions, attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) is included, and the term used is neurodevelopmental disorders. Yet others include antisocial behavior and schizophrenia that begins in childhood and continues through life. However, these two latter conditions are not as stable as the other developmental disorders, and there is not the same evidence of a shared genetic liability.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Conditions comorbid to autism spectrum disorders</span> Medical conditions more common in autistic people

Autism spectrum disorder (ASD) is a neurodevelopmental disorder that begins in early childhood, persists throughout adulthood, and affects two crucial areas of development: social communication and restricted, repetitive patterns of behavior. There are many conditions comorbid to autism spectrum disorder such as attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder and epilepsy.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Dysgraphia</span> Neurological disorder of written expression

Dysgraphia is a neurological disorder and learning disability that concerns impairments in written expression, which affects the ability to write, primarily handwriting, but also coherence. It is a specific learning disability (SLD) as well as a transcription disability, meaning that it is a writing disorder associated with impaired handwriting, orthographic coding and finger sequencing. It often overlaps with other learning disabilities and neurodevelopmental disorders such as speech impairment, attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) or developmental coordination disorder (DCD).

Adult Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder is the persistence of attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) into adulthood. It is a neurodevelopmental disorder, meaning impairing symptoms must have been present in childhood except for when ADHD occurs after traumatic brain injury. Specifically, multiple symptoms must be present before the age of 12, according to DSM-5 diagnostic criteria. The cutoff age of 12 is a change from the previous requirement of symptom onset, which was before the age of 7 in the DSM-IV. This was done to add flexibility in the diagnosis of adults. ADHD was previously thought to be a childhood disorder that improved with age, but recent research has disproved this. Approximately two-thirds of childhood cases of ADHD continue into adulthood, with varying degrees of symptom severity that change over time and continue to affect individuals with symptoms ranging from minor inconveniences to impairments in daily functioning.

Child psychopathology refers to the scientific study of mental disorders in children and adolescents. Oppositional defiant disorder, attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder, and autism spectrum disorder are examples of psychopathology that are typically first diagnosed during childhood. Mental health providers who work with children and adolescents are informed by research in developmental psychology, clinical child psychology, and family systems. Lists of child and adult mental disorders can be found in the International Statistical Classification of Diseases and Related Health Problems, 10th Edition (ICD-10), published by the World Health Organization (WHO) and in the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, Fifth Edition (DSM-5), published by the American Psychiatric Association (APA). In addition, the Diagnostic Classification of Mental Health and Developmental Disorders of Infancy and Early Childhood is used in assessing mental health and developmental disorders in children up to age five.

The following outline is provided as an overview of and topical guide to autism:

Developmental disability is a diverse group of chronic conditions, comprising mental or physical impairments that arise before adulthood. Developmental disabilities cause individuals living with them many difficulties in certain areas of life, especially in "language, mobility, learning, self-help, and independent living". Developmental disabilities can be detected early on and persist throughout an individual's lifespan. Developmental disability that affects all areas of a child's development is sometimes referred to as global developmental delay.

Oppositional defiant disorder (ODD) is listed in the DSM-5 under Disruptive, impulse-control, and conduct disorders and defined as "a pattern of angry/irritable mood, argumentative/defiant behavior, or vindictiveness". This behavior is usually targeted toward peers, parents, teachers, and other authority figures, including law enforcement officials. Unlike conduct disorder (CD), those with ODD do not generally show patterns of aggression towards random people, violence against animals, destruction of property, theft, or deceit. One-half of children with ODD also fulfill the diagnostic criteria for ADHD.

Neurodevelopmental disorders are a group of conditions that begin to emerge during childhood. According to the American Psychiatric Association Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, Fifth Edition, (DSM-5) published in 2013, these conditions generally appear in early childhood, usually before children start school, and can persist into adulthood. The key characteristic of all these disorders is that they negatively impact a person's functioning in one or more domains of life depending on the disorder and deficits it has caused. All of these disorders and their levels of impairment exist on a spectrum, and affected individuals can experience varying degrees of symptoms and deficits, despite having the same diagnosis.

Language disorders or language impairments are disorders that involve the processing of linguistic information. Problems that may be experienced can involve grammar, semantics (meaning), or other aspects of language. These problems may be receptive, expressive, or a combination of both. Examples include specific language impairment, better defined as developmental language disorder, or DLD, and aphasia, among others. Language disorders can affect both spoken and written language, and can also affect sign language; typically, all forms of language will be impaired.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">XXYY syndrome</span> Extra X and Y chromosome in males

XXYY syndrome is a sex chromosome anomaly in which males have 2 extra chromosomes, one X and one Y chromosome. Human cells usually contain two sex chromosomes, one from the mother and one from the father. Usually, females have two X chromosomes (XX) and males have one X and one Y chromosome (XY). The appearance of at least one Y chromosome with a properly functioning SRY gene makes a male. Therefore, humans with XXYY are genotypically male. Males with XXYY syndrome have 48 chromosomes instead of the typical 46. This is why XXYY syndrome is sometimes written as 48, XXYY syndrome or 48, XXYY. It affects an estimated one in every 18,000–40,000 male births.

Tourette syndrome is an inherited neurodevelopmental disorder that begins in childhood or adolescence, characterized by the presence of motor and phonic tics. The management of Tourette syndrome has the goal of managing symptoms to achieve optimum functioning, rather than eliminating symptoms; not all persons with Tourette's require treatment, and there is no cure or universally effective medication. Explanation and reassurance alone are often sufficient treatment; education is an important part of any treatment plan.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Intellectual disability</span> Generalized neurodevelopmental disorder

Intellectual disability (ID), also known as general learning disability and mental retardation, is a generalized neurodevelopmental disorder characterized by significant impairment in intellectual and adaptive functioning that is first apparent during childhood. Children with intellectual disabilities typically have an intelligence quotient (IQ) below 70 and deficits in at least two adaptive behaviors that affect everyday, general living. According to the DSM-5, intellectual functions include reasoning, problem solving, planning, abstract thinking, judgment, academic learning, and learning from experience. Deficits in these functions must be confirmed by clinical evaluation and individualized standard IQ testing. On the other hand, adaptive behaviors include the social, developmental, and practical skills people learn to perform tasks in their everyday lives. Deficits in adaptive functioning often compromises an individual's independence and ability to meet their social responsibility.

In psychology and neuroscience, executive dysfunction, or executive function deficit, is a disruption to the efficacy of the executive functions, which is a group of cognitive processes that regulate, control, and manage other cognitive processes. Executive dysfunction can refer to both neurocognitive deficits and behavioural symptoms. It is implicated in numerous psychopathologies and mental disorders, as well as short-term and long-term changes in non-clinical executive control. Executive dysfunction is the mechanism underlying ADHD paralysis, and in a broader context, it can encompass other cognitive difficulties like planning, organizing, initiating tasks and regulating emotions. It is a core characteristic of ADHD and can elucidate numerous other recognized symptoms.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Classic autism</span> Outdated diagnosis of Autism Spectrum Disorder

Classic autism, also known as childhood autism, autistic disorder, (early) infantile autism, infantile psychosis, Kanner's autism, Kanner's syndrome, or (formerly) just autism, is a neurodevelopmental condition first described by Leo Kanner in 1943. It is characterized by atypical and impaired development in social interaction and communication as well as restricted, repetitive behaviors, activities, and interests. These symptoms first appear in early childhood and persist throughout life.

Hyperactivity has long been part of the human condition, although hyperactive behaviour has not always been seen as problematic.

A feeding disorder, in infancy or early childhood, is a child's refusal to eat certain food groups, textures, solids or liquids for a period of at least one month, which causes the child to not gain enough weight, grow naturally or cause any developmental delays. Feeding disorders resemble failure to thrive, except that at times in feeding disorder there is no medical or physiological condition that can explain the very small amount of food the children consume or their lack of growth. Some of the times, a previous medical condition that has been resolved is causing the issue.

References

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  23. ↑ Corrigan, Watson (2002). "Understanding the impact of stigma on people with mental illness". World Psychiatry. 1 (1): 16–20. PMC   1489832 . PMID   16946807.
  24. ↑ Hinshaw, S (2005). "The stigmatization of mental i llness in children and parents: Developmental issues, family concerns, and research needs". Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry. 46 (7): 714–724. doi:10.1111/j.1469-7610.2005.01456.x. PMID   15972067.
  25. ↑ Hinshaw, S (2005). "The stigmatization of mental illness in children and parents: Developmental issues, family concerns, and research needs". Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry. 46 (7): 714–734. doi:10.1111/j.1469-7610.2005.01456.x. PMID   15972067.
  26. ↑ Chandra, Minkovitz (2006). "Stigma starts early: Gender differences in teen willingness to use mental health services". Journal of Adolescent Health. 38 (6): 754.e1–8. doi:10.1016/j.jadohealth.2005.08.011. PMID   16730608.
  27. ↑ Day of wrath By César Tort. ISBN   9781291884449
  28. ↑ Deadly Psychiatry and Organised Denial By Peter C. Gøtzsche 2015. ISBN   9788771596243
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