Social anxiety

Last updated

Social anxiety is the anxiety and fear specifically linked to being in social settings (i.e., interacting with others). [1] Some categories of disorders associated with social anxiety include anxiety disorders, mood disorders, autism spectrum disorders, eating disorders, and substance use disorders. [1] Individuals with higher levels of social anxiety often avert their gazes, show fewer facial expressions, and show difficulty with initiating and maintaining a conversation. [1] Social anxiety commonly manifests itself in the teenage years and can be persistent throughout life; however, people who experience problems in their daily functioning for an extended period of time can develop social anxiety disorder. Trait social anxiety, the stable tendency to experience this anxiety, can be distinguished from state anxiety, the momentary response to a particular social stimulus. [2] Half of the individuals with any social fears meet the criteria for social anxiety disorder. [3] Age, culture, and gender impact the severity of this disorder. [4] The function of social anxiety is to increase arousal and attention to social interactions, inhibit unwanted social behavior, and motivate preparation for future social situations. [1]

Contents

Disorder

Social anxiety disorder (SAD), also known as social phobia, is an anxiety disorder characterized by a significant amount of fear in one or more social situations causing considerable distress and impaired ability to function in at least some parts of daily life. [5] : 15  These fears can be triggered by perceived or actual scrutiny from others. Social anxiety disorder affects 8% of women and 6.1% of men. [6] In the United States, anxiety disorders are the most common mental illness. They affect 40 million adults, ages 18 and older. Anxiety can come in different forms and panic attacks can lead to panic disorders which is the recurrence of unexpected panic attacks. [7] Other related anxiety disorders include social anxiety disorder, generalized anxiety disorder, obsessive compulsive disorder (OCD), various types of phobias, and post traumatic stress disorder (PTSD). [8] Fortunately, it is highly treatable and not everyone needs the treatment.

Social anxiety disorder is distinct from the personality traits of introversion and shyness. 20220801 Introversion - Shyness - Social anxiety disorder - comparative chart.svg
Social anxiety disorder is distinct from the personality traits of introversion and shyness.

Physical symptoms often include excessive blushing, excess sweating, trembling, palpitations, and nausea. Stammering may be present, along with rapid speech. Panic attacks can also occur under intense fear and discomfort. Some sufferers may use alcohol or other drugs to reduce fears and inhibitions at social events. [11] It is common for sufferers of social phobia to self-medicate in this fashion, especially if they are undiagnosed, untreated, or both; this can lead to alcoholism, eating disorders or other kinds of substance abuse. SAD is sometimes referred to as an "illness of lost opportunities" where "individuals make major life choices to accommodate their illness". [12] [13] According to ICD-10 guidelines, the main diagnostic criteria of social anxiety disorder are fear of being the focus of attention, or fear of behaving in a way that will be embarrassing or humiliating, often coupled with avoidance and anxiety symptoms. Standardized rating scales can be used to screen for social anxiety disorder and measure the severity of anxiety.

Stages

Child development

Shyness is distinct from social anxiety, but shyness in children can develop into anxiety if social-avoidance tendencies are not outgrown. Flickr - Sukanto Debnath - ......1.jpg
Shyness is distinct from social anxiety, but shyness in children can develop into anxiety if social-avoidance tendencies are not outgrown.

Some feelings of anxiety in social situations are normal and necessary for effective social functioning and developmental growth. The difficulty with identifying social anxiety disorder in children lies in determining the difference between social anxiety and basic shyness. Typically, children may be diagnosed when their social fears are extreme or cannot be outgrown. [14] Cognitive advances and increased pressures in late childhood and early adolescence result in repeated social anxiety. More and more children are being diagnosed with social anxiety, and this can lead to problems with education if not closely monitored. Part of social anxiety is fear of being criticized by others, and in children, social anxiety causes extreme distress over everyday activities such as playing with other kids, reading in class, or speaking to adults. Some children with social anxiety may act out because of their fear, or they may exhibit nervousness or crying in an event where they feel anxious. [15] Adolescents have identified their most common anxieties as focused on relationships with peers to whom they are attracted, peer rejection, public speaking, blushing, self-consciousness, panic, and past behavior. Most adolescents progress through their fears and meet the developmental demands placed on them. [16]

Adults

It can be easier to identify social anxiety within adults because they tend to shy away from any social situation and keep to themselves. Common adult forms of social anxiety include performance anxiety, public speaking anxiety, stage fright, and timidness. All of these may also assume clinical forms, i.e., become anxiety disorders (see below). [17]

Criteria that distinguish between clinical and nonclinical forms of social anxiety include the intensity and level of behavioral and psychosomatic disruption (discomfort) in addition to the anticipatory nature of the fear. [17] Social anxieties may also be classified according to the broadness of triggering social situations. For example, fear of eating in public has a very narrow situational scope (eating in public), while shyness may have a wide scope (a person may be shy of doing many things in various circumstances). [17] The clinical (disorder) forms are also divided into general social phobia (i.e., social anxiety disorder) and specific social phobia.

Signs and symptoms

Blushing is a physiological response unique to humans and is a hallmark physiological response associated with social anxiety. [18] Blushing is the involuntary reddening of the face, neck, and chest in reaction to evaluation or social attention. [19] Blushing occurs not only in response to feelings of embarrassment but also other socially-oriented emotions such as shame, guilt, shyness, and pride. [18] Individuals high in social anxiety perceive themselves as blushing more than those who are low in social anxiety. [18] Three types of blushing can be measured: self-perceived blushing (how much the individual believes they are blushing), physiological blushing (blushing as measured by physiological indices), and observed blushing (blushing observed by others). Social anxiety is strongly associated with self-perceived blushing, weakly associated with blushing as measured by physiological indices such as temperature and blood flow to the cheeks and forehead, and moderately associated with observed blushing. The relationship between physiological blushing and self-perceived blushing is small among those high in social anxiety, indicating that individuals with high social anxiety may overestimate their blushing. [18] That social anxiety is associated most strongly with self-perceived blushing is also important for cognitive models of blushing and social anxiety, indicating that socially anxious individuals use both internal cues and other types of information to draw conclusions about how they are coming across. [18] Individuals with social anxiety might also refrain from making eye contact, or constantly fiddling with things during conversations or public speaking. Other indicators are physical symptoms which may include rapid heartbeat, muscle tension, dizziness and lightheadedness, stomach trouble and diarrhea, unable to catch a breath, and “out of body” sensation. [20]

Attention bias

Individuals who tend to experience more social anxiety turn their attention away from threatening social information and toward themselves, prohibiting themselves from challenging negative expectations about others and maintaining high levels of social anxiety. [21] For example, a socially anxious individual may perceive rejection from a conversational partner, turn their attention away, and never learn that the individual is actually welcoming. [22] Individuals who are high in social anxiety tend to show increased initial attention toward negative social cues, such as threatening faces, followed by attention away from these social cues, indicating a pattern of hypervigilance followed by avoidance. [22] [23] Attention in social anxiety has been measured using the dot-probe paradigm, which presents two faces next to one another. One face has an emotional expression and the other has a neutral expression, and when the faces disappear, a probe appears in the location of one of the faces. This creates a congruent condition in which the probe appears in the same location as the emotional face and an incongruent condition. Participants respond to the probe by pressing a button and differences in reaction times reveal attentional biases. This task has produced mixed results, with some studies finding no differences between socially-anxious individuals and controls, some studies finding avoidance of all faces by socially-anxious individuals, and other studies finding vigilance by socially-anxious individuals only toward threat faces. [22] The Face-in-the-crowd task shows that individuals with social anxiety are faster at detecting an angry face in a predominantly neutral or positive crowd or slower at detecting happy faces than a non-anxious person. [22]

Focus on the self has been associated with increased social anxiety and negative affect. However, there are two types of self-focus: public and private. In public self-focus, one shows concern for the impact of one's own actions on others and their impressions. This type of self-focus predicts greater social anxiety. [24] Other more private forms of self-consciousness (e.g., egocentric goals) are associated with other types of negative affect. [24]

Basic science research suggests that cognitive biases can be modified. Attention bias modification training has been shown to temporarily impact social anxiety. [25]

Triggers and behaviors

Social situations such as parties may be triggers for social anxiety. A safety behavior in response to such a situation may be hiding one's hands. Mr Awkward Mitten Pockets Ugly Christmas Sweater Vest.jpg
Social situations such as parties may be triggers for social anxiety. A safety behavior in response to such a situation may be hiding one's hands.

Triggers are sets of events or actions that can remind someone of a previous trauma or feared consequence. Exposure to a trigger could lead a person to have an emotional or physical reaction. Individuals could also have behavioral changes, such as avoiding public places or situations that might direct excessive focus and attention toward them, such as public speaking or talking to new people. [26] They also may not participate in certain activities for fear of embarrassment, which can lead to isolation. For someone who has social anxiety, this could lead them to have a panic attack. There are many negative side effects that can come from social anxiety if untreated, such as low self-esteem, trouble being assertive, hypersensitivity to criticism, poor social skills, becoming isolated, having difficulties with social relationships, low academic and employment achievements, substance abuse, and suicidal thoughts or attempts. [26] Safety behaviors often involve avoidance of the trigger itself or of perceived threats when exposed to the trigger. For example, once in a feared social situation, a socially-anxious individual may avoid eye contact, speaking to strangers, or eating in front of others. [27] Safety behaviors meant to make an individual feel safer have been found to most often enforce or validate anxious feelings, thus leading to a cycle in which the safety behavior is thought to be needed and the trigger's perceived threat is never challenged. [27]

Measures and treatment

Trait social anxiety is most commonly measured by self-report. [28] This method possesses limitations, but subjective responses are the most reliable indicator of a subjective state. Other measures of social anxiety include diagnostic interviews, clinician-administered instruments, and behavioral assessments. [29] No single trait social anxiety self-report measure shows all psychometric properties, including different kinds of validity (content validity, criterion validity, construct validity), reliability, and internal consistency. [28] The SIAS along with the SIAS-6A and -6B are rated as the best. [28] These measures include:

Many types of treatments are available for Social Anxiety Disorder (SAD). The disorder can more effectively be treated if identified early, such as in the early teenage years when SAD onset usually occurs. Treatment is made more effective by considering individual patients’ backgrounds and needs and often by combining behavioral and pharmacological interventions. The first-line treatment for social anxiety disorder is cognitive behavioral therapy (CBT), with medications recommended only in those who are not interested in therapy. CBT is effective in treating social phobia, whether delivered individually or in a group setting. The cognitive and behavioral components seek to change thought patterns and physical reactions to anxiety-inducing situations. The cognitive part of CBT helps individuals with social anxiety challenge unhelpful thoughts and allow new patterns of positive or realistic thinking. The behavioral component involves taking action to challenge the identified negative thoughts, such as participating in an anxiety-inducing activity that isn't dangerous in reality. Challenging behaviors in this way is part of exposure therapy. [40] The attention given to social anxiety disorder has significantly increased since 1999 with the approval and marketing of drugs for its treatment. Prescribed medications include several classes of antidepressants: selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs), serotonin-norepinephrine reuptake inhibitors (SNRIs), and monoamine oxidase inhibitors (MAOIs). Other commonly used medications include beta blockers and benzodiazepines. [41] SAD is the most common anxiety disorder, with up to 10% of people being affected at some point in their life. Other treatments that individuals with social anxiety may find helpful include massages, meditation, mindfulness, hypnotherapy, and acupuncture. [42]

Development and evolutionary theories

Social development in childhood

Fearful temperament and either underdeveloped social skills or excessive socialization of a child can cause the child to become hyper-aware of inappropriate social situations. [43] Additional factors in upbringing which can increase the likelihood of a child to develop social anxiety include overprotection by parents, lack of an emotionally expressive home environment, and observation of other people's social fears or mistakes. [44]

Sensory processing sensitivity

Sensory processing sensitivity (SPS) is a temperamental or personality trait involving "an increased sensitivity of the central nervous system and a deeper cognitive processing of physical, social and emotional stimuli". The trait is characterized by "a tendency to 'pause to check' in novel situations, greater sensitivity to subtle stimuli, and the engagement of deeper cognitive processing strategies for employing coping actions, all of which is driven by heightened emotional reactivity, both positive and negative". Genetic inheritance of a high level of sensory processing sensitivity may increase an individual's awareness of social situations and their potential consequences. [45]

Biological adaptation to living in small groups

There is a suggestion that people have adapted to live with others in small groups. Living in a group is attractive to humans as there are more people to provide labor and protection, and there is a concentration of potential mates. [46] [47] Any perceived threat to group resources should leave an individual on guard, as should any potential position of status that might bring conflict with others. [48] In effect, anxiety is adaptive because it helps people understand what is socially acceptable and what is not. The threat of exclusion from resources could lead to death.

Much of evolutionary theory is concerned with reproduction, so exposure to potential mates within a group is an evolutionary benefit. [48] Finally, at a basic level, being confined to a particular group of people limits exposure to certain diseases. [47] Studies have suggested that social affiliation has an impact on health, and, the more integrated and accepted we are, the healthier we are. [49] [46] [48] All of these factors are evolutionary primers for humans to be sensitive to social situations and their potential consequences.

Exclusion theory

At its simplest, social anxiety might come from as a basic human need to 'fit into' a given social group. [46] [50] Someone might be excluded due to their inability to contribute to a group, deviance from group standards, or even unattractiveness. Due to the benefits of living in a group, an individual would want to avoid social isolation at any cost. Knowing what is and is not seen as attractive to others allows individuals to anticipate and prevent rejection, criticisms, or exclusion by others. [48] Humans are physiologically sensitive to social cues and therefore detect changes in interactions which may indicate dissatisfaction or unpleasant reactions. [48] Overall, social anxiety may serve as a way for people to avoid certain actions that might bring anticipated social exclusion. [46]

See also

Listen to this article (31 minutes)
Sound-icon.svg
This audio file was created from a revision of this article dated 27 June 2006 (2006-06-27), and does not reflect subsequent edits.
(Audio help  · More spoken articles)

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Anxiety</span> Unpleasant state of inner turmoil over anticipated events

Anxiety is an emotion which is characterised by an unpleasant state of inner turmoil and includes feelings of dread over anticipated events. Anxiety is different from fear in that fear is defined as the emotional response to a real threat, whereas anxiety is the anticipation of a future threat. It is often accompanied by nervous behavior such as pacing back and forth, somatic complaints, and rumination.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Phobia</span> Anxiety disorder classified by a persistent and excessive fear of an object or situation

A phobia is an anxiety disorder, defined by an irrational, unrealistic, persistent and excessive fear of an object or situation. Phobias typically result in a rapid onset of fear and are usually present for more than six months. Those affected go to great lengths to avoid the situation or object, to a degree greater than the actual danger posed. If the object or situation cannot be avoided, they experience significant distress. Other symptoms can include fainting, which may occur in blood or injury phobia, and panic attacks, often found in agoraphobia and emetophobia. Around 75% of those with phobias have multiple phobias.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Anxiety disorder</span> Cognitive disorder with an excessive, irrational dread of everyday situations

Anxiety disorders are a cluster of mental disorders characterized by significant and uncontrollable feelings of anxiety and fear such that a person's social, occupational, and personal functions are significantly impaired. Anxiety may cause physical and cognitive symptoms, such as restlessness, irritability, easy fatigue, difficulty concentrating, increased heart rate, chest pain, abdominal pain, and a variety of other symptoms that may vary based on the individual.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Agoraphobia</span> Anxiety disorder

Agoraphobia is a mental and behavioral disorder, specifically an anxiety disorder characterized by symptoms of anxiety in situations where the person perceives their environment to be unsafe with no easy way to escape. These situations can include public transit, shopping centers, crowds and queues, or simply being outside their home on their own. Being in these situations may result in a panic attack. Those affected will go to great lengths to avoid these situations. In severe cases, people may become completely unable to leave their homes.

Specific phobia is an anxiety disorder, characterized by an extreme, unreasonable, and irrational fear associated with a specific object, situation, or concept which poses little or no actual danger. Specific phobia can lead to avoidance of the object or situation, persistence of the fear, and significant distress or problems functioning associated with the fear. A phobia can be the fear of anything.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Shyness</span> Feeling of apprehension, discomfort or awkwardness in the presence of other people

Shyness is the feeling of apprehension, lack of comfort, or awkwardness especially when a person is around other people. This commonly occurs in new situations or with unfamiliar people; a shy person may simply opt to avoid these situations. Although shyness can be a characteristic of people who have low self-esteem, the primary defining characteristic of shyness is a fear of what other people will think of a person's behavior. This fear of negative reactions such as being mocked, humiliated or patronized, criticized or rejected can cause a shy person to retreat. Stronger forms of shyness can be referred to as social anxiety or social phobia.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Avoidant personality disorder</span> Personality disorder

Avoidant personality disorder (AvPD) or Anxious personality disorder is a Cluster C personality disorder characterized by excessive social anxiety and inhibition, fear of intimacy, severe feelings of inadequacy and inferiority, and an overreliance on avoidance of feared stimuli as a maladaptive coping method. Those affected typically display a pattern of extreme sensitivity to negative evaluation and rejection, a belief that one is socially inept or personally unappealing to others, and avoidance of social interaction despite a strong desire for it. It appears to affect an approximately equal number of men and women.

Ergophobia is described as an extreme and debilitating fear associated with work, a fear of finding or losing employment, or fear of specific tasks in the workplace. The term ergophobia comes from the Greek "ergon" (work) and "phobos" (fear).

Cognitive restructuring (CR) is a psychotherapeutic process of learning to identify and dispute irrational or maladaptive thoughts known as cognitive distortions, such as all-or-nothing thinking (splitting), magical thinking, overgeneralization, magnification, and emotional reasoning, which are commonly associated with many mental health disorders. CR employs many strategies, such as Socratic questioning, thought recording, and guided imagery, and is used in many types of therapies, including cognitive behavioral therapy (CBT) and rational emotive behaviour therapy (REBT). A number of studies demonstrate considerable efficacy in using CR-based therapies.

Social inhibition is a conscious or subconscious avoidance of a situation or social interaction. With a high level of social inhibition, situations are avoided because of the possibility of others disapproving of their feelings or expressions. Social inhibition is related to behavior, appearance, social interactions, or a subject matter for discussion. Related processes that deal with social inhibition are social evaluation concerns, anxiety in social interaction, social avoidance, and withdrawal. Also related are components such as cognitive brain patterns, anxious apprehension during social interactions, and internalizing problems. It also describes those who suppress anger, restrict social behavior, withdraw in the face of novelty, and have a long latency to interact with strangers. Individuals can also have a low level of social inhibition, but certain situations may generally cause people to be more or less inhibited. Social inhibition can sometimes be reduced by the short-term use of drugs including alcohol or benzodiazepines. Major signs of social inhibition in children are cessation of play, long latencies to approaching the unfamiliar person, signs of fear and negative affect, and security seeking. Also in high level cases of social inhibition, other social disorders can emerge through development, such as social anxiety disorder and social phobia.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Worry</span> Thoughts, images, emotions, and actions of a pessimistic nature

Worry refers to the thoughts, images, emotions, and actions of a negative nature in a repetitive, uncontrollable manner that results from a proactive cognitive risk analysis made to avoid or solve anticipated potential threats and their potential consequences.

The Liebowitz Social Anxiety Scale (LSAS) is a short questionnaire developed in 1987 by Michael Liebowitz, a psychiatrist and researcher at Columbia University and the New York State Psychiatric Institute. Its purpose is to assess the range of social interaction and performance situations feared by a patient in order to assist in the diagnosis of social anxiety disorder. It is commonly used to study outcomes in clinical trials and, more recently, to evaluate the effectiveness of cognitive-behavioral treatments. The scale features 24 items, which are divided into two subscales. 13 questions relate to performance anxiety and 11 concern social situations. The LSAS was originally conceptualized as a clinician-administered rating scale, but has since been validated as a self-report scale.

Test anxiety is a combination of physiological over-arousal, tension and somatic symptoms, along with worry, dread, fear of failure, and catastrophizing, that occur before or during test situations. It is a psychological condition in which people experience extreme stress, anxiety, and discomfort during and/or before taking a test. This anxiety creates significant barriers to learning and performance. Research suggests that high levels of emotional distress have a direct correlation to reduced academic performance and higher overall student drop-out rates. Test anxiety can have broader consequences, negatively affecting a student's social, emotional and behavioural development, as well as their feelings about themselves and school.

In psychology, desensitization is a treatment or process that diminishes emotional responsiveness to a negative, aversive, or positive stimulus after repeated exposure. Desensitization can also occur when an emotional response is repeatedly evoked when the action tendency associated with the emotion proves irrelevant or unnecessary. The process of desensitization was developed by psychologist Mary Cover Jones and is primarily used to assist individuals in unlearning phobias and anxieties. Desensitization is a psychological process where a response is repeatedly elicited in circumstances where the emotion's propensity for action is irrelevant. Joseph Wolpe (1958) developed a method of a hierarchal list of anxiety-evoking stimuli in order of intensity, which allows individuals to undergo adaptation. Although medication is available for individuals with anxiety, fear, or phobias, empirical evidence supports desensitization with high rates of cure, particularly in clients with depression or schizophrenia. Wolpe's "reciprocal inhibition" desensitization process is based on well-known psychology theories such as Hull's "drive-reduction" theory and Sherrington's concept of "reciprocal inhibition." Individuals are gradually exposed to anxiety triggers while using relaxation techniques to reduce anxiety. It is an effective treatment for anxiety disorders.

Mental health professionals often distinguish between generalized social phobia and specific social phobia. People with generalized social phobia have great distress in a wide range of social situations. Those with specific social phobia may experience anxiety only in a few situations. The term "specific social phobia" may also refer to specific forms of non-clinical social anxiety.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Social anxiety disorder</span> Anxiety disorder associated with social situations

Social anxiety disorder (SAD), also known as social phobia, is an anxiety disorder characterized by sentiments of fear and anxiety in social situations, causing considerable distress and impairing ability to function in at least some aspects of daily life. These fears can be triggered by perceived or actual scrutiny from others. Individuals with social anxiety disorder fear negative evaluations from other people.

Driving phobia, driving anxiety, vehophobia, amaxophobia or driving-related fear (DRF) is a pathological fear of driving. It is an intense, persistent fear of participating in car traffic that affects a person's lifestyle, including aspects such as an inability to participate in certain jobs due to the pathological avoidance of driving. The fear of driving may be triggered by specific driving situations, such as expressway driving or dense traffic. Driving anxiety can range from a mild cautious concern to a phobia.

Fear of negative evaluation (FNE) or fear of failure, also known as atychiphobia, is a psychological construct reflecting "apprehension about others' evaluations, distress over negative evaluations by others, and the expectation that others would evaluate one negatively". The construct and a psychological test to measure it were defined by David Watson and Ronald Friend in 1969. FNE is related to specific personality dimensions, such as anxiousness, submissiveness, and social avoidance. People who score high on the FNE scale are highly concerned with seeking social approval or avoiding disapproval by others and may tend to avoid situations where they have to undergo evaluations. High FNE subjects are also more responsive to situational factors. This has been associated with conformity, pro-social behavior, and social anxiety.

Separation anxiety disorder (SAD) is an anxiety disorder in which an individual experiences excessive anxiety regarding separation from home and/or from people to whom the individual has a strong emotional attachment. Separation anxiety is a natural part of the developmental process. It is most common in infants and little children, typically between the ages of six to seven months to three years, although it may pathologically manifest itself in older children, adolescents and adults. Unlike SAD, normal separation anxiety indicates healthy advancements in a child's cognitive maturation and should not be considered a developing behavioral problem.

Safety behaviors are coping behaviors used to reduce anxiety and fear when the user feels threatened. An example of a safety behavior in social anxiety is to think of excuses to escape a potentially uncomfortable situation. These safety behaviors, although useful for reducing anxiety in the short term, might become maladaptive over the long term by prolonging anxiety and fear of nonthreatening situations. This problem is commonly experienced in anxiety disorders. Treatments such as exposure and response prevention focus on eliminating safety behaviors due to the detrimental role safety behaviors have in mental disorders. There is a disputed claim that safety behaviors can be beneficial to use during the early stages of treatment.

References

  1. 1 2 3 4 Schneier, Franklin R; Blanco, Carlos; Antia, Smita X; Liebowitz, Michael R (2002). "The social anxiety spectrum". Psychiatric Clinics of North America. 25 (4): 757–774. doi:10.1016/s0193-953x(02)00018-7. PMID   12462859.
  2. ↑ Spielberger, C.D. (1983). Manual for the state-trait anxiety inventory (STAI). Palo Alto: Consulting Psychologists Press.
  3. ↑ Ruscio, A. M.; Brown, T. A.; Chiu, W. T.; Sareen, J.; Stein, M. B.; Kessler, R. C. (2008-01-01). "Social fears and social phobia in the USA: results from the National Comorbidity Survey Replication". Psychological Medicine. 38 (1): 15–28. doi:10.1017/S0033291707001699. ISSN   1469-8978. PMC   2262178 . PMID   17976249.
  4. ↑ Hofmann, Stefan G.; Asnaani, Anu; Hinton, Devon E. (2010). "Cultural Aspects in Social Anxiety and Social Anxiety Disorder". Depression and Anxiety. 27 (12): 1117–27. doi:10.1002/da.20759. PMC   3075954 . PMID   21132847.
  5. ↑ National Institute for Health and Clinical Excellence: Guidance. Social Anxiety Disorder: Recognition, Assessment and Treatment. Leicester (UK): British Psychological Society; 2013. PMID   25577940
  6. ↑ "NIMH » Social Anxiety Disorder". www.nimh.nih.gov. Retrieved 2020-03-30.
  7. ↑ Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders: DSM-5 (5th ed.). Washington: American psychiatric association. 2013. ISBN   978-0-89042-554-1.
  8. ↑ Division (DCD), Digital Communications (2013-02-09). "What are the five major types of anxiety disorders?". HHS.gov. Retrieved 2022-09-28.
  9. ↑ Peterson, Ashley L. (April 11, 2019). "Introversion, Shyness & Social Anxiety: What's the Difference?". Mental Health at Home. Archived from the original on August 1, 2022.
  10. ↑ Brown, Alexander (13 March 2022). "Social Anxiety? Introvert? Or Shy?". Mind Journal. Archived from the original on August 1, 2022.
  11. ↑ "Social anxiety disorder: MedlinePlus Medical Encyclopedia". medlineplus.gov. Retrieved 2021-04-04.
  12. ↑ Stein, MD, Murray B.; Gorman, MD, Jack M. (2001). "Unmasking social anxiety disorder" (PDF). Journal of Psychiatry & Neuroscience. 3. 26 (3): 185–9. PMC   1408304 . PMID   11394188 . Retrieved 17 March 2014.
  13. ↑ Shields, Margot (2004). "Social anxiety disorder— beyond shyness" (PDF). How Healthy Are Canadians? Statistics Canada Annual Report. 15: 58. PMID   15748044 . Retrieved 17 March 2014.
  14. ↑ CDC (2023-07-25). "Anxiety and Depression in Children | CDC". Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Retrieved 2023-10-07.
  15. ↑ Adalbjarnardottir, Sigrun (December 1995). "How Schoolchildren Propose to Negotiate: The Role of Social Withdrawal, Social Anxiety, and Locus of Control". Child Development. 66 (6): 1739–1751. doi:10.1111/j.1467-8624.1995.tb00962.x. PMID   8556896.
  16. ↑ Albano, Anne Marie; Detweiler, Michael F. (2001). "The Developmental and Clinical Impact of Social Anxiety and Social Phobia in Children and Adolescents". In Hofmann, Stefan G.; DiBartolo, Patricia M. (eds.). From Social Anxiety to Social Phobia: Multiple Perspectives. Allyn & Bacon. ISBN   978-0-205-28189-3.
  17. 1 2 3 Harold Leitenberg (1990) "Handbook of Social and Evaluation Anxiety", ISBN   0-306-43438-5
  18. 1 2 3 4 5 Nikolić, Milica; Colonnesi, Cristina; de Vente, Wieke; Drummond, Peter; Bögels, Susan M. (2015-06-01). "Blushing and Social Anxiety: A Meta-Analysis". Clinical Psychology: Science and Practice. 22 (2): 177–193. doi:10.1111/cpsp.12102. ISSN   1468-2850. S2CID   145628394.
  19. ↑ Leary, Mark R.; Toner, Kaitlin (2012). The Psychological Significance of the Blush. pp. 63–76. doi:10.1017/cbo9781139012850.007. ISBN   9781139012850.
  20. ↑ "What Is Social Anxiety Disorder?". WebMD. Retrieved 2021-03-14.
  21. ↑ Clark, D.M.; Wells, A (1995). "A cognitive model of social phobia". In R.G. Heimberg; M.R. Leibowitz; D.A. Hope; F.R. Schneier (eds.). Social phobia: Diagnosis, assessment, and treatment. New York, NY: Guilford Press. pp. 69–93.
  22. 1 2 3 4 Staugaard, Søren Risløv (2010-08-01). "Threatening faces and social anxiety: A literature review" (PDF). Clinical Psychology Review. 30 (6): 669–690. doi:10.1016/j.cpr.2010.05.001. PMID   20554362.
  23. ↑ Bögels, Susan M.; Mansell, Warren (2004-11-01). "Attention processes in the maintenance and treatment of social phobia: hypervigilance, avoidance and self-focused attention". Clinical Psychology Review. Social Phobia and Social Anxiety. 24 (7): 827–856. doi:10.1016/j.cpr.2004.06.005. PMID   15501558.
  24. 1 2 Mor, Nilly; Winquist, Jennifer (2002). "Self-focused attention and negative affect: A meta-analysis". Psychological Bulletin. 128 (4): 638–662. doi:10.1037/0033-2909.128.4.638. PMID   12081086. S2CID   10287790.
  25. ↑ Heeren, Alexandre; Mogoașe, Cristina; Philippot, Pierre; McNally, Richard J. (2015-08-01). "Attention bias modification for social anxiety: A systematic review and meta-analysis". Clinical Psychology Review. 40: 76–90. doi:10.1016/j.cpr.2015.06.001. hdl:2078.1/160458. PMID   26080314.
  26. 1 2 "Social anxiety disorder (social phobia) - Symptoms and causes". Mayo Clinic. Retrieved 2021-04-15.
  27. 1 2 Lowe, Robyn; Menzies, Ross; Onslow, Mark; Packman, Ann; O'Brian, Sue (2021-01-14). "Speech and Anxiety Management With Persistent Stuttering: Current Status and Essential Research". Journal of Speech, Language, and Hearing Research. 64 (1): 59–74. doi:10.1044/2020_JSLHR-20-00144. ISSN   1092-4388. PMC   8608149 . PMID   33400555.
  28. 1 2 3 Modini, Matthew; Abbott, Maree J.; Hunt, Caroline (2015-04-21). "A Systematic Review of the Psychometric Properties of Trait Social Anxiety Self-Report Measures". Journal of Psychopathology and Behavioral Assessment. 37 (4): 645–662. doi:10.1007/s10862-015-9483-0. ISSN   0882-2689. S2CID   143622606.
  29. ↑ Antony, M.M. (1997). "Assessment and treatment of social phobia". Canadian Journal of Psychiatry. 42 (8): 826–834. doi:10.1177/070674379704200804. PMID   9356770. S2CID   33247969.
  30. ↑ Leary, Mark R. (1983-09-01). "A Brief Version of the Fear of Negative Evaluation Scale". Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin. 9 (3): 371–375. doi:10.1177/0146167283093007. ISSN   0146-1672. S2CID   144875099.
  31. ↑ Marks, I. M.; Mathews, A. M. (1979-01-01). "Brief standard self-rating for phobic patients". Behaviour Research and Therapy. 17 (3): 263–267. doi:10.1016/0005-7967(79)90041-X. PMID   526242.
  32. ↑ Leary, Mark R.; Kowalski, Robin M. (1993-08-01). "The Interaction Anxiousness Scale: Construct and Criterion-Related Validity". Journal of Personality Assessment. 61 (1): 136–146. doi:10.1207/s15327752jpa6101_10. ISSN   0022-3891. PMID   8377098.
  33. ↑ Liebowitz, Michael R. (1987). "Social Phobia". Anxiety. Modern Trends in Pharmacopsychiatry. Vol. 22. pp. 141–173. doi:10.1159/000414022. ISBN   978-3-8055-4488-7. PMID   2885745.
  34. ↑ Gould, Christine E.; Gerolimatos, Lindsay A.; Ciliberti, Caroline M.; Edelstein, Barry A.; Smith, Merideth D. (2012-12-01). "Initial evaluation of the Older Adult Social-Evaluative Situations Questionnaire: a measure of social anxiety in older adults". International Psychogeriatrics. 24 (12): 2009–2018. doi:10.1017/S1041610212001275. ISSN   1041-6102. PMID   22846411. S2CID   11689050.
  35. ↑ Turner, Samuel M.; Beidel, Deborah C.; Dancu, Constance V.; Stanley, Melinda A. (1989). "An empirically derived inventory to measure social fears and anxiety: The Social Phobia and Anxiety Inventory". Psychological Assessment. 1 (1): 35–40. doi:10.1037/1040-3590.1.1.35.
  36. ↑ Scheier, Michael F.; Carver, Charles S. (1985-12-01). "The Self-Consciousness Scale: A Revised Version for Use with General Populations1". Journal of Applied Social Psychology. 15 (8): 687–699. doi:10.1111/j.1559-1816.1985.tb02268.x. ISSN   1559-1816.
  37. 1 2 Mattick, Richard P.; Clarke, J. Christopher (1998-04-01). "Development and validation of measures of social phobia scrutiny fear and social interaction anxiety1". Behaviour Research and Therapy. 36 (4): 455–470. doi:10.1016/S0005-7967(97)10031-6. PMID   9670605.
  38. ↑ Turner, Samuel M.; Stanley, Melinda A.; Beidel, Deborah C.; Bond, Lloyd (1989). "The social phobia and anxiety inventory: Construct validity". Journal of Psychopathology and Behavioral Assessment. 11 (3): 221–234. doi:10.1007/BF00960494. ISSN   0882-2689. S2CID   143941255.
  39. ↑ Ishiyama, F. (1999). "Development and validation of a situational social avoidance scale". Psychological Reports. 85 (1): 114–120. doi:10.2466/pr0.1999.85.1.114. S2CID   143467833.
  40. ↑ Wolgensinger, Laure (2015-09-30). "Cognitive behavioral group therapy for anxiety: recent developments". Dialogues in Clinical Neuroscience. 17 (3): 347–351. doi:10.31887/DCNS.2015.17.3/lwolgensinger. ISSN   1958-5969. PMC   4610619 . PMID   26487815.
  41. ↑ Garakani, Amir; Murrough, James W.; Freire, Rafael C.; Thom, Robyn P.; Larkin, Kaitlyn; Buono, Frank D.; Iosifescu, Dan V. (2020-12-23). "Pharmacotherapy of Anxiety Disorders: Current and Emerging Treatment Options". Frontiers in Psychiatry. 11. doi: 10.3389/fpsyt.2020.595584 . ISSN   1664-0640. PMC   7786299 . PMID   33424664.
  42. ↑ "Social Anxiety Disorder Guide: Test, Symptoms, Causes & Treatment". Psycom.net - Mental Health Treatment Resource Since 1996. Retrieved 2021-02-22.
  43. ↑ Buss, A. (1980). Self-consciousness and social anxiety. San Francisco: Freeman.
  44. ↑ Garcia, Katelyn M.; Carlton, Corinne N.; Richey, John A. (2021-04-28). "Parenting Characteristics among Adults With Social Anxiety and their Influence on Social Anxiety Development in Children: A Brief Integrative Review". Frontiers in Psychiatry. 12. doi: 10.3389/fpsyt.2021.614318 . ISSN   1664-0640. PMC   8113611 . PMID   33995142.
  45. ↑ Aron, E. (1999). High sensitivity as one source of fearfulness and shyness. In J. Schulkin & L. A. Schmidt (Eds.), Extreme fear, shyness, and social phobia (pp. 251-272). New York: Oxford University Press.
  46. 1 2 3 4 Baumeister, R., & Tice, D. (1990). Anxiety and Social Exclusion. Journal of Social and Clinical Psychology,9(2).
  47. 1 2 Buss, D. (1990). The Evolution of Anxiety and Social Exclusion. Journal Of Social And Clinical Psychology,9(2), 196-201.
  48. 1 2 3 4 5 Gilbert, P. (2001). Evolution and Social Anxiety: The Role of Attraction, Social Competition, and Social Hierarchies. Psychiatric Clinics, 24(4), 723-751.
  49. ↑ Wilkinson, R. G. (1999). Health, Hierarchy, and Social Anxiety. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences, 896(1), 48-63.
  50. ↑ Leary, M. R. & Kowalski, R. M. (1995). Social Anxiety. New York: Guilford.
This page is based on this Wikipedia article
Text is available under the CC BY-SA 4.0 license; additional terms may apply.
Images, videos and audio are available under their respective licenses.