Bipolar disorder, previously known as manic depression or manic depressive disorder, is a mental disorder characterized by periods of depression and periods of abnormally elevated mood that each last from days to weeks.[4][5] If the elevated mood is severe or associated with psychosis, it is called mania; if it is less severe and does not significantly affect functioning, it is called hypomania.[4] During mania, an individual behaves or feels abnormally energetic, happy, or irritable,[4] and they often make impulsive decisions with little regard for the consequences;[5] there is usually also a reduced need for sleep during manic phases.[5] During periods of depression, the individual may experience crying, have a negative outlook on life, and demonstrate poor eye contact with others.[4] The risk of suicide is high; over a period of 20 years, 6% of those with bipolar disorder died by suicide, while 30–40% engaged in self-harm.[4] Other mental health issues, such as anxiety disorders and substance use disorders, are commonly associated with bipolar disorder.[4] The global prevalence of bipolar disorder is estimated to be between 1-5% of the world's popluation.[7]
While the causes of this mood disorder are not clearly understood, both genetic and environmental factors are thought to play a role.[4] Many genes, each with small effects, may contribute to the development of the disorder.[4][8]Genetic factors account for about 70–90% of the risk of developing bipolar disorder.[9][10] Environmental risk factors include a history of childhood abuse and long-term stress.[4] The condition is classified as bipolar I disorder if there has been at least one manic episode, with or without depressive episodes, and as bipolar II disorder if there has been at least one hypomanic episode (but no full manic episodes) and one major depressive episode.[5] It is classified as cyclothymia if there are hypomanic episodes with periods of depression that do not meet the criteria for major depressive episodes.[11] If these symptoms are due to drugs or medical problems, they are not diagnosed as bipolar disorder.[5] Other conditions that have overlapping symptoms with bipolar disorder include attention deficit hyperactivity disorder, personality disorders, schizophrenia, and substance use disorder as well as many other medical conditions.[4]Medical testing is not required for a diagnosis, though blood tests or medical imaging can rule out other problems.[12]
Mood stabilizers, particularly lithium, and certain anticonvulsants, such as lamotrigine, valproate, and carbamazepine, as well as atypical antipsychotics, including quetiapine and aripiprazole, are the mainstay of long-term pharmacologic relapse prevention.[13]Antipsychotics are additionally given during acute manic episodes as well as in cases where mood stabilizers are poorly tolerated or ineffective. In patients where compliance is of concern, long-acting injectable formulations are available.[13] There is some evidence that psychotherapy improves the course of this disorder.[14] The use of antidepressants in depressive episodes is controversial: they can be effective but have been implicated in triggering manic episodes.[15] The treatment of depressive episodes, therefore, is often difficult.[13]Electroconvulsive therapy (ECT) is effective in acute manic and depressive episodes, especially with psychosis or catatonia.[lower-alpha 1][13] Admission to a psychiatric hospital may be required if a person is a risk to themselves or others; involuntary treatment is sometimes necessary if the affected person refuses treatment.[4]
Bipolar disorder occurs in approximately 2% of the global population.[17] In the United States, about 3% are estimated to be affected at some point in their life; rates appear to be similar in females and males.[6][18] Symptoms most commonly begin between the ages of 20 and 25 years old; an earlier onset in life is associated with a worse prognosis.[19] Interest in functioning in the assessment of patients with bipolar disorder is growing, with an emphasis on specific domains such as work, education, social life, family, and cognition.[20] Around one-quarter to one-third of people with bipolar disorder have financial, social or work-related problems due to the illness.[4] Bipolar disorder is among the top 20 causes of disability worldwide and leads to substantial costs for society.[21] Due to lifestyle choices and the side effects of medications, the risk of death from natural causes such as coronary heart disease in people with bipolar disorder is twice that of the general population.[4]
Signs and symptoms
Late adolescence and early adulthood are peak years for the onset of bipolar disorder.[22][23] The condition is characterized by intermittent episodes of mania, commonly (but not in every patient) alternating with bouts of depression, with an absence of symptoms in between.[24][25] During these episodes, people with bipolar disorder exhibit disruptions in normal mood, psychomotor activity (the level of physical activity that is influenced by mood)—e.g. constant fidgeting during mania or slowed movements during depression—circadian rhythm and cognition. Mania can present with varying levels of mood disturbance, ranging from euphoria, which is associated with "classic mania", to dysphoria and irritability.[26] Psychotic symptoms such as delusions or hallucinations may occur in both manic and depressive episodes; their content and nature are consistent with the person's prevailing mood.[4] In some people with bipolar disorder, depressive symptoms predominate, and the episodes of mania are always the more subdued hypomania type.[25]
According to the DSM-5 criteria, mania is distinguished from hypomania by the duration: hypomania is present if elevated mood symptoms persist for at least four consecutive days, while mania is present if such symptoms persist for more than a week. Unlike mania, hypomania is not always associated with impaired functioning.[13] The biological mechanisms responsible for switching from a manic or hypomanic episode to a depressive episode, or vice versa, remain poorly understood.[27]
Manic episodes
An 1892 color lithograph depicting a woman diagnosed with hilarious mania
Also known as a manic episode, mania is a distinct period of at least one week of elevated or irritable mood, which can range from euphoria to delirium. The core symptom of mania involves an increase in energy of psychomotor activity. Mania can also present with increased self-esteem or grandiosity, racing thoughts, pressured speech that is difficult to interrupt, decreased need for sleep, disinhibited social behavior,[26] increased goal-oriented activities and impaired judgement, which can lead to exhibition of behaviors characterized as impulsive or high-risk, such as hypersexuality or excessive spending.[28][29][30] To fit the definition of a manic episode, these behaviors must impair the individual's ability to socialize or work.[28][30] If untreated, a manic episode usually lasts three to six months.[31]
In severe manic episodes, a person can experience psychotic symptoms, where thought content is affected along with mood.[30] They may feel unstoppable, persecuted, or as if they have a special relationship with God, a great mission to accomplish, or other grandiose or delusional ideas.[32][33] This may lead to violent behavior and, sometimes, hospitalization in an inpatient psychiatric hospital.[29][30] The severity of manic symptoms can be measured by rating scales such as the Young Mania Rating Scale, though questions remain about the reliability of these scales.[34]
The onset of a manic or depressive episode is often foreshadowed by sleep disturbance.[35] Manic individuals often have a history of substance use disorder developed over years as a form of "self-medication".[36]
Hypomanic episodes
An 1858 lithograph captioned "Melancholy passing into mania"
Hypomania is the milder form of mania, defined as at least four days of the same criteria as mania,[30] but which does not cause a significant decrease in the individual's ability to socialize or work, lacks psychotic features such as delusions or hallucinations, and does not require psychiatric hospitalization.[28] Overall functioning may actually increase during episodes of hypomania and is thought to serve as a defense mechanism against depression by some.[37] Hypomanic episodes rarely progress to full-blown manic episodes.[37] Some people who experience hypomania show increased creativity,[30][38] while others are irritable or demonstrate poor judgment.[10]
Hypomania may feel good to some individuals who experience it, though most people who experience hypomania state that the stress of the experience is very painful.[30] People with bipolar disorder who experience hypomania tend to forget the effects of their actions on those around them. Even when family and friends recognize mood swings, the individual will often deny that anything is wrong.[39] If not accompanied by depressive episodes, hypomanic episodes are often not deemed problematic unless the mood changes are uncontrollable or volatile.[37] Most commonly, symptoms continue for time periods from a few weeks to a few months.[40]
Symptoms of the depressive phase of bipolar disorder include persistent feelings of sadness, irritability or anger, loss of interest in previously enjoyed activities, excessive or inappropriate guilt, hopelessness, sleeping too much or not enough, changes in appetite and/or weight, fatigue, problems concentrating, self-loathing or feelings of worthlessness, and thoughts of death or suicide.[41] Although the DSM-5 criteria for diagnosing unipolar and bipolar episodes are the same, some clinical features are more common in the latter, including increased sleep, sudden onset and resolution of symptoms, significant weight gain or loss, and severe episodes after childbirth.[13]
The earlier the age of onset, the more likely the first few episodes are to be depressive.[42] For most people with bipolar types 1 and 2, the depressive episodes are much longer than the manic or hypomanic episodes.[19] Since a diagnosis of bipolar disorder requires a manic or hypomanic episode, many affected individuals are initially misdiagnosed as having major depression and incorrectly treated with prescribed antidepressants.[43]
In bipolar disorder, a mixed state is an episode during which symptoms of both mania and depression occur simultaneously.[44] Individuals experiencing a mixed state may have manic symptoms such as grandiose thoughts while simultaneously experiencing depressive symptoms such as excessive guilt or feeling suicidal.[44] They are considered to have a higher risk for suicidal behavior as depressive emotions such as hopelessness are often paired with mood swings or difficulties with impulse control.[44]Anxiety disorders occur more frequently as a comorbidity in mixed bipolar episodes than in non-mixed bipolar depression or mania.[44] Substance (including alcohol) use also follows this trend, thereby appearing to depict bipolar symptoms as no more than a consequence of substance use.[44]
In November 2018, Cyberpsychology published a systematic review and meta-analysis of 5 studies that found evidence for a relationship between problematic smartphone use and impulsivity traits.[45] In October 2020, the Journal of Behavioral Addictions published a systematic review and meta-analysis of 40 studies with 33,650 post-secondary student subjects that found that a weak-to-moderate positive association between mobile phone addiction and impulsivity.[46]
In April 2021, a meta-analysis of 3 studies comprising 9,142 subjects was presented at the International Conference on Big Data and Informatization Education that found that problematic internet use is a risk factor for bipolar disorder.[47] In December 2023, the Journal of Psychiatric Research published a meta-analysis of 24 studies with 18,859 subjects with a mean age of 18.4 years that found significant associations between problematic internet use and impulsivity.[48]
Comorbid conditions
People with bipolar disorder often have other co-existing psychiatric conditions such as anxiety (present in about 71% of people with bipolar disorder), substance abuse (56%), personality disorders (36%) and attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (10–20%) which can add to the burden of illness and worsen the prognosis.[19] Certain medical conditions are also more common in people with bipolar disorder as compared to the general population. This includes increased rates of metabolic syndrome (present in 37% of people with bipolar disorder), migraine headaches (35%), obesity (21%) and type 2 diabetes (14%).[19] This contributes to a risk of death that is two times higher in those with bipolar disorder as compared to the general population.[19]
The causes of bipolar disorder likely vary between individuals and the exact mechanism underlying the disorder remains unclear.[51] Genetic influences are believed to account for 73–93% of the risk of developing the disorder indicating a strong hereditary component.[10] The overall heritability of the bipolar spectrum has been estimated at 0.71.[52]Twin studies have been limited by relatively small sample sizes but have indicated a substantial genetic contribution, as well as environmental influence. For bipolar I disorder, the rate at which identical twins (same genes) will both have bipolar I disorder (concordance) is around 40%, compared to about 5% in fraternal twins.[28][53] A combination of bipolar I, II, and cyclothymia similarly produced rates of 42% and 11% (identical and fraternal twins, respectively).[52] The rates of bipolar II combinations without bipolar I are lower—bipolar II at 23 and 17%, and bipolar II combining with cyclothymia at 33 and 14%—which may reflect relatively higher genetic heterogeneity.[52]
The cause of bipolar disorders overlaps with major depressive disorder. When defining concordance as the co-twins having either bipolar disorder or major depression, then the concordance rate rises to 67% in identical twins and 19% in fraternal twins.[54] The relatively low concordance between fraternal twins brought up together suggests that shared family environmental effects are limited, although the ability to detect them has been limited by small sample sizes.[52]
Genetic
Behavioral genetic studies have suggested that many chromosomal regions and candidate genes are related to bipolar disorder susceptibility with each gene exerting a mild to moderate effect.[55] The risk of bipolar disorder is nearly ten-fold higher in first-degree relatives of those with bipolar disorder than in the general population; similarly, the risk of major depressive disorder is three times higher in relatives of those with bipolar disorder than in the general population.[28]
Although the first genetic linkage finding for mania was in 1969,[56] linkage studies have been inconsistent.[28] Findings point strongly to heterogeneity, with different genes implicated in different families.[57] Robust and replicable genome-wide significant associations showed several common single-nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) are associated with bipolar disorder, including variants within the genes CACNA1C, ODZ4, and NCAN.[55][58] The largest and most recent genome-wide association study failed to find any locus that exerts a large effect, reinforcing the idea that no single gene is responsible for bipolar disorder in most cases.[58] Polymorphisms in BDNF, DRD4, DAO, and TPH1 have been frequently associated with bipolar disorder and were initially associated in a meta-analysis, but this association disappeared after correction for multiple testing.[59] On the other hand, two polymorphisms in TPH2 were identified as being associated with bipolar disorder.[60]
Bipolar disorder is associated with reduced expression of specific DNA repair enzymes and increased levels of oxidative DNA damages.[64]
Environmental
Psychosocial factors play a significant role in the development and course of bipolar disorder, and individual psychosocial variables may interact with genetic dispositions.[65] Recent life events and interpersonal relationships likely contribute to the onset and recurrence of bipolar mood episodes, just as they do for unipolar depression.[66] In surveys, 30–50% of adults diagnosed with bipolar disorder report traumatic/abusive experiences in childhood, which is associated with earlier onset, a higher rate of suicide attempts, and more co-occurring disorders such as post-traumatic stress disorder.[67] Subtypes of abuse, such as sexual and emotional abuse, also contribute to violent behaviors seen in patients with bipolar disorder.[68] The number of reported stressful events in childhood is higher in those with an adult diagnosis of bipolar spectrum disorder than in those without, particularly events stemming from a harsh environment rather than from the child's own behavior.[69] Acutely, mania can be induced by sleep deprivation in around 30% of people with bipolar disorder.[70]
Brain imaging studies have revealed differences in the volume of various brain regions between patients with bipolar disorder and healthy control subjects.
The precise mechanisms that cause bipolar disorder are not well understood. Bipolar disorder is thought to be associated with abnormalities in the structure and function of certain brain areas responsible for cognitive tasks and the processing of emotions.[24] A neurologic model for bipolar disorder proposes that the emotional circuitry of the brain can be divided into two main parts.[24] The ventral system (regulates emotional perception) includes brain structures such as the amygdala, insula, ventral striatum, ventral anterior cingulate cortex, and the prefrontal cortex.[24] The dorsal system (responsible for emotional regulation) includes the hippocampus, dorsal anterior cingulate cortex, and other parts of the prefrontal cortex.[24] The model hypothesizes that bipolar disorder may occur when the ventral system is overactivated and the dorsal system is underactivated.[24] Other models suggest the ability to regulate emotions is disrupted in people with bipolar disorder and that dysfunction of the ventricular prefrontal cortex is crucial to this disruption.[24]
Functional MRI findings suggest that the ventricular prefrontal cortex regulates the limbic system, especially the amygdala.[76] In people with bipolar disorder, decreased ventricular prefrontal cortex activity allows for the dysregulated activity of the amygdala, which likely contributes to labile mood and poor emotional regulation.[76] Consistent with this, pharmacological treatment of mania returns ventricular prefrontal cortex activity to the levels in non-manic people, suggesting that ventricular prefrontal cortex activity is an indicator of mood state. However, while pharmacological treatment of mania reduces amygdala hyperactivity, it remains more active than the amygdala of those without bipolar disorder, suggesting amygdala activity may be a marker of the disorder rather than the current mood state.[77] Manic and depressive episodes tend to be characterized by dysfunction in different regions of the ventricular prefrontal cortex. Manic episodes appear to be associated with decreased activation of the right ventricular prefrontal cortex whereas depressive episodes are associated with decreased activation of the left ventricular prefrontal cortex.[76] These disruptions often occur during development linked with synaptic pruning dysfunction.[78]
People with bipolar disorder who are in a euthymic mood state show decreased activity in the lingual gyrus compared to people without bipolar disorder.[24] In contrast, they demonstrate decreased activity in the inferior frontal cortex during manic episodes compared to people without the disorder.[24] Similar studies examining the differences in brain activity between people with bipolar disorder and those without did not find a consistent area in the brain that was more or less active when comparing these two groups.[24] People with bipolar have increased activation of left hemisphere ventral limbic areas—which mediate emotional experiences and generation of emotional responses—and decreased activation of right hemisphere cortical structures related to cognition—structures associated with the regulation of emotions.[79]
Neuroscientists have proposed additional models to try to explain the cause of bipolar disorder. One proposed model for bipolar disorder suggests that hypersensitivity of reward circuits consisting of frontostriatal circuits causes mania, and decreased sensitivity of these circuits causes depression.[80] According to the "kindling" hypothesis, when people who are genetically predisposed toward bipolar disorder experience stressful events, the stress threshold at which mood changes occur becomes progressively lower, until the episodes eventually start (and recur) spontaneously. There is evidence supporting an association between early-life stress and dysfunction of the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis leading to its overactivation, which may play a role in the pathogenesis of bipolar disorder.[81][82] Other brain components that have been proposed to play a role in bipolar disorder are the mitochondria[51] and a sodium ATPasepump.[83]Circadian rhythms and regulation of the hormone melatonin also seem to be altered.[84]
Dopamine, a neurotransmitter responsible for mood cycling, has increased transmission during the manic phase.[27][85] The dopamine hypothesis states that the increase in dopamine results in secondary homeostaticdownregulation of key system elements and receptors such as lower sensitivity of dopaminergic receptors. This results in decreased dopamine transmission characteristic of the depressive phase.[27] The depressive phase ends with homeostatic upregulation potentially restarting the cycle over again.[86]Glutamate is significantly increased within the left dorsolateral prefrontal cortex during the manic phase of bipolar disorder, and returns to normal levels once the phase is over.[87]
Medications used to treat bipolar may exert their effect by modulating intracellular signaling, such as through depleting myo-inositol levels, inhibition of cAMP signaling, and through altering subunits of the dopamine-associated G-protein.[88] Consistent with this, elevated levels of Gαi, Gαs, and Gαq/11 have been reported in brain and blood samples, along with increased protein kinase A (PKA) expression and sensitivity;[89] typically, PKA activates as part of the intracellular signalling cascade downstream from the detachment of Gαs subunit from the G protein complex.
Decreased levels of 5-hydroxyindoleacetic acid, a byproduct of serotonin, are present in the cerebrospinal fluid of persons with bipolar disorder during both the depressed and manic phases. Increased dopaminergic activity has been hypothesized in manic states due to the ability of dopamine agonists to stimulate mania in people with bipolar disorder. Decreased sensitivity of regulatory α2adrenergic receptors as well as increased cell counts in the locus coeruleus indicated increased noradrenergic activity in manic people. Low plasma GABA levels on both sides of the mood spectrum have been found.[90] One review found no difference in monoamine levels, but found abnormal norepinephrine turnover in people with bipolar disorder.[91]Tyrosine depletion was found to reduce the effects of methamphetamine in people with bipolar disorder as well as symptoms of mania, implicating dopamine in mania. VMAT2 binding was found to be increased in one study of people with bipolar mania.[92]
Diagnosis
Bipolar disorder is commonly diagnosed during adolescence or early adulthood, but onset can occur throughout life.[5][93] Its diagnosis is based on the self-reported experiences of the individual, abnormal behavior reported by family members, friends or co-workers, observable signs of illness as assessed by a clinician, and ideally a medical work-up to rule out other causes. Caregiver-scored rating scales, specifically from the mother, have shown to be more accurate than teacher and youth-scored reports in identifying youths with bipolar disorder.[94] Assessment is usually done on an outpatient basis; admission to an inpatient facility is considered if there is a risk to oneself or others.
Bipolar disorder is classified by the International Classification of Diseases as a mental and behaviouraldisorder.[99] Mental disorders that can have symptoms similar to those seen in bipolar disorder include schizophrenia, major depressive disorder,[100] attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), and certain personality disorders, such as borderline personality disorder.[101][102][103] A key difference between bipolar disorder and borderline personality disorder is the nature of the mood swings; in contrast to the sustained changes to mood over days to weeks or longer, those of the latter condition (more accurately called emotional dysregulation) are sudden and often short-lived, and secondary to social stressors.[104]
Since Emil Kraepelin's distinction between bipolar disorder and schizophrenia in the 19th century, researchers have defined a spectrum of different types of bipolar disorder.
Bipolar spectrum disorders include: bipolar I disorder, bipolar II disorder, cyclothymic disorder and cases where subthreshold symptoms are found to cause clinically significant impairment or distress.[5][93][96] These disorders involve major depressive episodes that alternate with manic or hypomanic episodes, or with mixed episodes that feature symptoms of both mood states.[5] The concept of the bipolar spectrum is similar to that of Emil Kraepelin's original concept of manic depressive illness.[106] Bipolar II disorder was established as a diagnosis in 1994 within DSM IV; though debate continues over whether it is a distinct entity, part of a spectrum, or exists at all.[107]
Criteria and subtypes
Simplified graphical comparison of bipolar I, bipolar II and cyclothymia
The DSM and the ICD characterize bipolar disorder as a spectrum of disorders occurring on a continuum. The DSM-5 and ICD-11 lists three specific subtypes:[5][96]
Bipolar I disorder: At least one manic episode is necessary to make the diagnosis;[110] depressive episodes are common in the vast majority of cases with bipolar disorder I, but are unnecessary for the diagnosis.[28] Specifiers such as "mild, moderate, moderate-severe, severe" and "with psychotic features" should be added as applicable to indicate the presentation and course of the disorder.[5]
Bipolar II disorder: No manic episodes and one or more hypomanic episodes and one or more major depressive episodes.[110] Hypomanic episodes do not go to the full extremes of mania (i.e., do not usually cause severe social or occupational impairment, and are without psychosis), and this can make bipolar II more difficult to diagnose, since the hypomanic episodes may simply appear as periods of successful high productivity and are reported less frequently than a distressing, crippling depression.
Cyclothymia: A history of hypomanic episodes with periods of depression that do not meet criteria for major depressive episodes.[11]
When relevant, specifiers for peripartum onset and with rapid cycling should be used with any subtype. Individuals who have subthreshold symptoms that cause clinically significant distress or impairment, but do not meet full criteria for one of the three subtypes may be diagnosed with other specified or unspecified bipolar disorder. Other specified bipolar disorder is used when a clinician chooses to explain why the full criteria were not met (e.g., hypomania without a prior major depressive episode).[5] If the condition is thought to have a non-psychiatric medical cause, the diagnosis of bipolar and related disorder due to another medical condition is made, while substance/medication-induced bipolar and related disorder is used if a medication is thought to have triggered the condition.[111]
Rapid cycling
Most people who meet criteria for bipolar disorder experience a number of episodes, on average 0.4 to 0.7 per year, lasting three to six months.[112]Rapid cycling, however, is a course specifier that may be applied to any bipolar subtype. It is defined as having four or more mood disturbance episodes within a one-year span. Rapid cycling is usually temporary but is common amongst people with bipolar disorder and affects 25.8–45.3% of them at some point in their life.[41][113] These episodes are separated from each other by a remission (partial or full) for at least two months or a switch in mood polarity (i.e., from a depressive episode to a manic episode or vice versa).[28] The definition of rapid cycling most frequently cited in the literature (including the DSM-V and ICD-11) is that of Dunner and Fieve: at least four major depressive, manic, hypomanic or mixed episodes during a 12-month period.[114] The literature examining the pharmacological treatment of rapid cycling is sparse and there is no clear consensus with respect to its optimal pharmacological management.[115] "Ultra rapid" and "ultradian" have been applied to faster-cycling types of bipolar disorder.[116] People with the rapid cycling or faster-cycling subtypes of bipolar disorder tend to be more difficult to treat and less responsive to medications than other people with bipolar disorder.[117]
Lithium is the only medication approved by the FDA for treating mania in children.
In the 1920s, Kraepelin noted that manic episodes are rare before puberty.[121] In general, bipolar disorder in children was not recognized in the first half of the twentieth century. This issue diminished with an increased following of the DSM criteria in the last part of the twentieth century.[121][122] The diagnosis of childhood bipolar disorder, while formerly controversial,[123] has gained greater acceptance among childhood and adolescent psychiatrists.[124] American children and adolescents diagnosed with bipolar disorder in community hospitals increased 4-fold reaching rates of up to 40% in 10 years around the beginning of the 21st century, while in outpatient clinics it doubled reaching 6%.[123] Studies using DSM criteria show that up to 1% of youth may have bipolar disorder.[121] The DSM-5 has established a diagnosis—disruptive mood dysregulation disorder—that covers children with long-term, persistent irritability that had at times been misdiagnosed as having bipolar disorder,[125] distinct from irritability in bipolar disorder that is restricted to discrete mood episodes.[124]
Adults
Bipolar on average, starts during adulthood. Bipolar 1, on average, starts at the age of 18 years old, and Bipolar 2 starts at age 22 years old on average. However, most delay seeking treatment for an average of 8 years after symptoms start. Bipolar is often misdiagnosed with other psychiatric disorders. There is no definitive association between race, ethnicity, or Socioeconomic status (SES).[126] Adults with Bipolar report having a lower quality of life, even outside of a manic or depressive episode. Bipolar can put strain on marriage and other relationships, having a job, and everyday functioning. Bipolar is associated with having higher rates of unemployment. Most have trouble keeping a job, leading to trouble with healthcare access, leading to more decline in their mental health due to not receiving treatment such as medicine and therapy.[127]
Elderly
Bipolar disorder is uncommon in older patients, with a measured lifetime prevalence of 1% in over 60s and a 12-month prevalence of 0.1–0.5% in people over 65. Despite this, it is overrepresented in psychiatric admissions, making up 4–8% of inpatient admission to aged care psychiatry units, and the incidence of mood disorders is increasing overall with the aging population. Depressive episodes more commonly present with sleep disturbance, fatigue, hopelessness about the future, slowed thinking, and poor concentration and memory; the last three symptoms are seen in what is known as pseudodementia. Clinical features also differ between those with late-onset bipolar disorder and those who developed it early in life; the former group present with milder manic episodes, more prominent cognitive changes and have a background of worse psychosocial functioning, while the latter present more commonly with mixed affective episodes,[128] and have a stronger family history of illness.[129] Older people with bipolar disorder experience cognitive changes, particularly in executive functions such as abstract thinking and switching cognitive sets, as well as concentrating for long periods and decision-making.[128]
Prevention
Attempts at prevention of bipolar disorder have focused on stress (such as childhood adversity or highly conflictual families) which, although not a diagnostically specific causal agent for bipolar, does place genetically and biologically vulnerable individuals at risk for a more severe course of illness.[130] Longitudinal studies have indicated that full-blown manic stages are often preceded by a variety of prodromal clinical features, providing support for the occurrence of an at-risk state of the disorder when an early intervention might prevent its further development and/or improve its outcome.[131][132]
The aim of management is to treat acute episodes safely with medication and work with the patient in long-term maintenance to prevent further episodes and optimise function using a combination of pharmacological and psychotherapeutic techniques.[13] Hospitalization may be required especially with the manic episodes present in bipolar I. This can be voluntary or (local legislation permitting) involuntary. Long-term inpatient stays are now less common due to deinstitutionalization, although these can still occur.[133] Following (or in lieu of) a hospital admission, support services available can include drop-in centers, visits from members of a community mental health team or an Assertive Community Treatment team, supported employment, patient-led support groups, and intensive outpatient programs. These are sometimes referred to as partial-inpatient programs.[134] Compared to the general population, people with bipolar disorder are less likely to frequently engage in physical exercise. Exercise may have physical and mental benefits for people with bipolar disorder, but there is a lack of research.[135][136][137]
Psychosocial
Psychotherapy aims to assist a person with bipolar disorder in accepting and understanding their diagnosis, coping with various types of stress, improving their interpersonal relationships, and recognizing prodromal symptoms before full-blown recurrence.[10]Cognitive behavioral therapy (CBT), family-focused therapy, and psychoeducation have the most evidence for efficacy in regard to relapse prevention, while interpersonal and social rhythm therapy and cognitive-behavioral therapy appear the most effective in regard to residual depressive symptoms. Most studies have been based only on bipolar I, however, and treatment during the acute phase can be a particular challenge.[138] Some clinicians emphasize the need to talk with individuals experiencing mania, to develop a therapeutic alliance in support of recovery.[139]
Medication
Lithium is often used to treat bipolar disorder and has the best evidence for reducing suicide.
Medications are often prescribed to help improve symptoms of bipolar disorder. Medications approved for treating bipolar disorder including mood stabilizers, antipsychotics, and antidepressants. Sometimes a combination of medications may also be suggested.[13] The choice of medications may differ depending on the bipolar disorder episode type or if the person is experiencing unipolar or bipolar depression.[13][140] Other factors to consider when deciding on an appropriate treatment approach includes if the person has any comorbidities, their response to previous therapies, adverse effects, and the desire of the person to be treated.[13]
Mood stabilizers
Lithium and the anticonvulsantscarbamazepine, lamotrigine, and valproic acid are classed as mood stabilizers due to their effect on the mood states in bipolar disorder.[117] Lithium has the best overall evidence and is considered an effective treatment for acute manic episodes, preventing relapses, and bipolar depression.[141][142] Lithium reduces the risk of suicide, self-harm, and death in people with bipolar disorder.[143] Lithium is preferred for long-term mood stabilization.[66] Lithium treatment is also associated with adverse effects and it has been shown to erode kidney and thyroid function over extended periods.[13] Valproate has become a commonly prescribed treatment and effectively treats manic episodes.[144] Carbamazepine is less effective in preventing relapse than lithium or valproate.[145][146] Lamotrigine has some efficacy in treating depression, and this benefit is greatest in more severe depression.[147] Lamotrigine may have a similar effectiveness to lithium for treating bipolar disorder, however, there is evidence to suggest that lamotrigine is less effective at preventing recurrent mania episodes.[148] Lamotrigine treatment has been shown to be safer compared to lithium treatment, with less adverse effects. Valproate and carbamazepine are teratogenic and should be avoided as a treatment in women of childbearing age, but discontinuation of these medications during pregnancy is associated with a high risk of relapse.[19] The effectiveness of topiramate is unknown.[149] Carbamazepine effectively treats manic episodes, with some evidence it has greater benefit in rapid-cycling bipolar disorder, or those with more psychotic symptoms or more symptoms similar to that of schizoaffective disorder.
Mood stabilizers are used for long-term maintenance but have not demonstrated the ability to quickly treat acute bipolar depression.[117]
Antipsychotics
Antipsychotic medications are effective for short-term treatment of bipolar manic episodes and appear to be superior to lithium and anticonvulsants for this purpose.[66] Atypical antipsychotics are also indicated for bipolar depression refractory to treatment with mood stabilizers.[117]Olanzapine is effective in preventing relapses, although the supporting evidence is weaker than the evidence for lithium.[150] A 2006 review found that haloperidol was an effective treatment for acute mania, limited data supported no difference in overall efficacy between haloperidol, olanzapine or risperidone, and that it could be less effective than aripiprazole.[151]
Antidepressants
Antidepressants are not recommended for use alone in the treatment of bipolar disorder and do not provide any benefit over mood stabilizers.[13][152] Atypical antipsychotic medications (e.g., aripiprazole) are preferred over antidepressants to augment the effects of mood stabilizers due to the lack of efficacy of antidepressants in bipolar disorder. Treatment of bipolar disorder using antidepressants may carry a risk of affective switches where a person switches from depression to manic or hypomanic phases.[19] There may also be a risk of accelerating cycling between phases when antidepressants are used in bipolar disorder. The risk of affective switches is higher in bipolar I depression; antidepressants are generally avoided in bipolar I disorder or only used with mood stabilizers when they are deemed necessary.[19]:63
Whether modern antidepressants cause mania or cycle acceleration in bipolar disorder is highly controversial, as is whether antidepressants provide any benefit over mood stabilizers alone.[19]:63[153]
Combined treatment approaches
Antipsychotics and mood stabilizers used together are quicker and more effective at treating mania than either class of drug used alone. Some analyses indicate antipsychotics alone are also more effective at treating acute mania.[13] A first-line treatment for depression in bipolar disorder is a combination of olanzapine and fluoxetine.[140]
Other drugs
Short courses of benzodiazepines are used in addition to other medications for calming effect until mood stabilizing become effective.[154]Electroconvulsive therapy (ECT) is an effective form of treatment for acute mood disturbances in those with bipolar disorder, especially when psychotic or catatonic features are displayed. ECT is also recommended for use in pregnant women with bipolar disorder.[13] It is unclear if ketamine (a common general dissociative anesthetic used in surgery) is useful in bipolar disorder.[140]Gabapentin and pregabalin are not proven to be effective for treating bipolar disorder.[155][156][157]
Children
Treating bipolar disorder in children involves medication and psychotherapy.[123] The literature and research on the effects of psychosocial therapy on bipolar spectrum disorders are scarce, making it difficult to determine the efficacy of various therapies.[158]Mood stabilizers and atypical antipsychotics are commonly prescribed.[123] Among the former, lithium is the only compound approved by the FDA for children.[121] Psychological treatment combines normally education on the disease, group therapy, and cognitive behavioral therapy.[123] Long-term medication is often needed.[123]
Resistance to treatment
The occurrence of poor response to treatment in has given support to the concept of resistance to treatment in bipolar disorder.[159][160] Guidelines to the definition of such treatment resistance and evidence-based options for its management were reviewed in 2020.[161]
Management of obesity
A large proportion (approximately 68%) of people who seek treatment for bipolar disorder are obese or overweight and managing obesity is important for reducing the risk of other health conditions that are associated with obesity.[162] Management approaches include non-pharmacological, pharmacological, and surgical. Examples of non-pharmacological include dietary interventions, exercise, behavioral therapies, or combined approaches. Pharmacological approaches include weight-loss medications or changing medications already being prescribed.[163] Some people with bipolar disorder who have obesity may also be eligible for bariatric surgery.[162] The effectiveness of these various approaches to improving or managing obesity in people with bipolar disorder is not clear.[162]
Prognosis
A lifelong condition with periods of partial or full recovery in between recurrent episodes of relapse,[41][164] bipolar disorder is considered to be a major health problem worldwide because of the increased rates of disability and premature mortality.[164] It is also associated with co-occurring psychiatric and medical problems, higher rates of death from natural causes (e.g., cardiovascular disease), and high rates of initial under- or misdiagnosis, causing a delay in appropriate treatment and contributing to poorer prognoses.[4][42] When compared to the general population, people with bipolar disorder also have higher rates of other serious medical comorbidities including diabetes mellitus, respiratory diseases, HIV, and hepatitis C virus infection.[165] After a diagnosis is made, it remains difficult to achieve complete remission of all symptoms with the currently available psychiatric medications and symptoms often become progressively more severe over time.[97][166]
Compliance with medications is one of the most significant factors that can decrease the rate and severity of relapse and have a positive impact on overall prognosis.[167] However, the types of medications used in treating BD commonly cause side effects[168] and more than 75% of individuals with BD inconsistently take their medications for various reasons.[167] Of the various types of the disorder, rapid cycling (four or more episodes in one year) is associated with the worst prognosis due to higher rates of self-harm and suicide.[41] Individuals diagnosed with bipolar who have a family history of bipolar disorder are at a greater risk for more frequent manic/hypomanic episodes.[169] Early onset and psychotic features are also associated with worse outcomes,[170][171] as well as subtypes that are nonresponsive to lithium.[166]
Early recognition and intervention also improve prognosis as the symptoms in earlier stages are less severe and more responsive to treatment.[166] Onset after adolescence is connected to better prognoses for both genders, and being male is a protective factor against higher levels of depression. For women, better social functioning before developing bipolar disorder and being a parent are protective towards suicide attempts.[169]
Functioning
Changes in cognitive processes and abilities are seen in mood disorders, with those of bipolar disorder being greater than those in major depressive disorder.[172] These include reduced attentional and executive capabilities and impaired memory.[173] People with bipolar disorder often experience a decline in cognitive functioning during (or possibly before) their first episode, after which a certain degree of cognitive dysfunction typically becomes permanent, with more severe impairment during acute phases and moderate impairment during periods of remission. As a result, two-thirds of people with BD continue to experience impaired psychosocial functioning in between episodes even when their mood symptoms are in full remission. A similar pattern is seen in both BD-I and BD-II, but people with BD-II experience a lesser degree of impairment.[168]
When bipolar disorder occurs in children, it severely and adversely affects their psychosocial development.[124] Children and adolescents with bipolar disorder have higher rates of significant difficulties with substance use disorders, psychosis, academic difficulties, behavioral problems, social difficulties, and legal problems.[124] Cognitive deficits typically increase over the course of the illness. Higher degrees of impairment correlate with the number of previous manic episodes and hospitalizations, and with the presence of psychotic symptoms.[174] Early intervention can slow the progression of cognitive impairment, while treatment at later stages can help reduce distress and negative consequences related to cognitive dysfunction.[166]
Despite the overly ambitious goals that are frequently part of manic episodes, symptoms of mania undermine the ability to achieve these goals and often interfere with an individual's social and occupational functioning. One-third of people with BD remain unemployed for one year following a hospitalization for mania.[175] Depressive symptoms during and between episodes, which occur much more frequently for most people than hypomanic or manic symptoms over the course of illness, are associated with lower functional recovery in between episodes, including unemployment or underemployment for both BD-I and BD-II.[5][176] However, the course of illness (duration, age of onset, number of hospitalizations, and the presence or not of rapid cycling) and cognitive performance are the best predictors of employment outcomes in individuals with bipolar disorder, followed by symptoms of depression and years of education.[176]
Recovery and recurrence
A naturalistic study in 2003 by Tohen and coworkers from the first admission for mania or mixed episode (representing the hospitalized and therefore most severe cases) found that 50% achieved syndromal recovery (no longer meeting criteria for the diagnosis) within six weeks and 98% within two years. Within two years, 72% achieved symptomatic recovery (no symptoms at all) and 43% achieved functional recovery (regaining of prior occupational and residential status). However, 40% went on to experience a new episode of mania or depression within 2 years of syndromal recovery, and 19% switched phases without recovery.[177]
Symptoms preceding a relapse (prodromal), especially those related to mania, can be reliably identified by people with bipolar disorder.[178] There have been intents to teach patients coping strategies when noticing such symptoms with encouraging results.[179]
Suicide
Bipolar disorder can cause suicidal ideation that leads to suicide attempts. Individuals whose bipolar disorder begins with a depressive or mixed affective episode seem to have a poorer prognosis and an increased risk of suicide.[100] One out of two people with bipolar disorder attempt suicide at least once during their lifetime and many attempts are successfully completed.[55] The annual average suicide rate is 0.4%-1.4%, which is 30 to 60 times greater than that of the general population.[17] The number of deaths from suicide in bipolar disorder is between 18 and 25 times higher than would be expected in similarly aged people without bipolar disorder.[180] The lifetime risk of suicide is much higher in those with bipolar disorder, with an estimated 34% of people attempting suicide and 15–20% dying by suicide.[17]
Risk factors for suicide attempts and death from suicide in people with bipolar disorder include older age, prior suicide attempts, a depressive or mixed index episode (first episode), a manic index episode with psychotic symptoms, hopelessness or psychomotor agitation present during the episodes, co-existing anxiety disorder, a first degree relative with a mood disorder or suicide, interpersonal conflicts, occupational problems, bereavement or social isolation.[19]
Bipolar disorder is the sixth leading cause of disability worldwide and has a lifetime prevalence of about 1 to 3% in the general population.[6][181][182] However, a reanalysis of data from the National Epidemiological Catchment Area survey in the United States suggested that 0.8% of the population experience a manic episode at least once (the diagnostic threshold for bipolar I) and a further 0.5% have a hypomanic episode (the diagnostic threshold for bipolar II or cyclothymia). Including sub-threshold diagnostic criteria, such as one or two symptoms over a short time-period, an additional 5.1% of the population, adding up to a total of 6.4%, were classified as having a bipolar spectrum disorder.[183] A more recent analysis of data from a second US National Comorbidity Survey found that 1% met lifetime prevalence criteria for bipolar I, 1.1% for bipolar II, and 2.4% for subthreshold symptoms.[184] Estimates vary about how many children and young adults have bipolar disorder.[124] These estimates range from 0.6 to 15% depending on differing settings, methods, and referral settings, raising suspicions of overdiagnosis.[124] One meta-analysis of bipolar disorder in young people worldwide estimated that about 1.8% of people between the ages of seven and 21 have bipolar disorder.[124] Similar to adults, bipolar disorder in children and adolescents is thought to occur at a similar frequency in boys and girls.[124]
There are conceptual and methodological limitations and variations in the findings. Prevalence studies of bipolar disorder are typically carried out by lay interviewers who follow fully structured/fixed interview schemes; responses to single items from such interviews may have limited validity. In addition, diagnoses (and therefore estimates of prevalence) vary depending on whether a categorical or spectrum approach is used. This consideration has led to concerns about the potential for both underdiagnosis and overdiagnosis.[185]
The incidence of bipolar disorder is similar in men and women[186] as well as across different cultures and ethnic groups.[187] A 2000 study by the World Health Organization found that prevalence and incidence of bipolar disorder are very similar across the world. Age-standardized prevalence per 100,000 ranged from 421.0 in South Asia to 481.7 in Africa and Europe for men and from 450.3 in Africa and Europe to 491.6 in Oceania for women. However, severity may differ widely across the globe. Disability-adjusted life year rates, for example, appear to be higher in developing countries, where medical coverage may be poorer and medication less available.[188] Within the United States, Asian Americans have significantly lower rates than their African American and European American counterparts.[189] In 2017, the Global Burden of Disease Study estimated there were 4.5 million new cases and a total of 45.5 million cases globally.[190]
German psychiatrist Emil Kraepelin first distinguished between manic–depressive illness and "dementia praecox" (now known as schizophrenia) in the late 19th century.
In the early 1800s, French psychiatrist Jean-Étienne Dominique Esquirol's lypemania, one of his affective monomanias, was the first elaboration on what was to become modern depression.[191] The basis of the current conceptualization of bipolar illness can be traced back to the 1850s. In 1850, Jean-Pierre Falret described "circular insanity" (la folie circulaire, French pronunciation:[lafɔlisiʁ.ky.lɛʁ]); the lecture was summarized in 1851 in the Gazette des hôpitaux ("Hospital Gazette").[2] Three years later, in 1854, Jules-Gabriel-François Baillarger (1809–1890) described to the French Imperial Académie Nationale de Médecine a biphasic mental illness causing recurrent oscillations between mania and melancholia, which he termed la folie à double forme (French pronunciation:[lafɔliadublfɔʀm], "madness in double form").[2][192] Baillarger's original paper, "De la folie à double forme", appeared in the medical journal Annales médico-psychologiques (Medico-psychological annals) in 1854.[2]
These concepts were developed by the German psychiatrist Emil Kraepelin (1856–1926), who, using Kahlbaum's concept of cyclothymia,[193] categorized and studied the natural course of untreated bipolar patients. He coined the term manic depressive psychosis, after noting that periods of acute illness, manic or depressive, were generally punctuated by relatively symptom-free intervals where the patient was able to function normally.[194]
The term "manic–depressive reaction" appeared in the first version of the DSM in 1952, influenced by the legacy of Adolf Meyer.[195] Subtyping into "unipolar" depressive disorders and bipolar disorders has its origin in Karl Kleist's concept – since 1911 – of unipolar and bipolar affective disorders, which was used by Karl Leonhard in 1957 to differentiate between unipolar and bipolar disorder in depression.[196] These subtypes have been regarded as separate conditions since publication of the DSM-III. The subtypes bipolar II and rapid cycling have been included since the DSM-IV, based on work from the 1970s by David Dunner, Elliot Gershon, Frederick Goodwin, Ronald Fieve, and Joseph Fleiss.[197][198][199]
Singer Rosemary Clooney's public revelation of bipolar disorder made her an early celebrity spokesperson for mental illness.
Cost
The United States spent approximately $202.1 billion on people diagnosed with bipolar I disorder (excluding other subtypes of bipolar disorder and undiagnosed people) in 2015.[165] One analysis estimated that the United Kingdom spent approximately £5.2 billion on the disorder in 2007.[201][202] In addition to the economic costs, bipolar disorder is a leading cause of disability and lost productivity worldwide.[21] People with bipolar disorder are generally more disabled, have a lower level of functioning, longer duration of illness, and increased rates of work absenteeism and decreased productivity when compared to people experiencing other mental health disorders.[203] The decrease in the productivity seen in those who care for people with bipolar disorder also significantly contributes to these costs.[204]
Advocacy
There are widespread issues with social stigma, stereotypes, and prejudice against individuals with a diagnosis of bipolar disorder.[205] In 2000, actress Carrie Fisher went public with her bipolar disorder diagnosis.[206][207] She became one of the most well-recognized advocates for people with bipolar disorder in the public eye and fiercely advocated to eliminate the stigma surrounding mental illnesses, including bipolar disorder.[208]Stephen Fried, who has written extensively on the topic, noted that Fisher helped to draw attention to the disorder's chronicity, relapsing nature, and that bipolar disorder relapses do not indicate a lack of discipline or moral shortcomings.[208] Since being diagnosed at age 37, actor Stephen Fry has pushed to raise awareness of the condition, with his 2006 documentary Stephen Fry: The Secret Life of the Manic Depressive.[209][210] In an effort to ease the social stigma associated with bipolar disorder, the orchestra conductor Ronald Braunstein cofounded the ME/2 Orchestra with his wife Caroline Whiddon in 2011. Braunstein was diagnosed with bipolar disorder in 1985 and his concerts with the ME/2 Orchestra were conceived in order to create a welcoming performance environment for his musical colleagues, while also raising public awareness about mental illness.[211][212]
Several dramatic works have portrayed characters with traits suggestive of the diagnosis which have been the subject of discussion by psychiatrists and film experts alike.
In Mr. Jones (1993), (Richard Gere) swings from a manic episode into a depressive phase and back again, spending time in a psychiatric hospital and displaying many of the features of the syndrome.[218] In The Mosquito Coast (1986), Allie Fox (Harrison Ford) displays some features including recklessness, grandiosity, increased goal-directed activity and mood lability, as well as some paranoia.[219] Psychiatrists have suggested that Willy Loman, the main character in Arthur Miller's classic play Death of a Salesman, has bipolar disorder.[220]
The 2009 drama 90210 featured a character, Silver, who was diagnosed with bipolar disorder.[221]Stacey Slater, a character from the BBC soap EastEnders, has been diagnosed with the disorder. The storyline was developed as part of the BBC's Headroom campaign.[222] The Channel 4 soap Brookside had earlier featured a story about bipolar disorder when the character Jimmy Corkhill was diagnosed with the condition.[223] 2011 Showtime's political thriller drama Homeland protagonist Carrie Mathison has bipolar disorder, which she has kept secret since her school days.[224] The 2014 ABC medical drama, Black Box, featured a world-renowned neuroscientist with bipolar disorder.[225] In the TV series Dave, the eponymous main character, played by Lil Dicky as a fictionalized version of himself, is an aspiring rapper. Lil Dicky's real-life hype man GaTa also plays himself. In one episode, after being off his medication and having an episode, GaTa tearfully confesses to having bipolar disorder. GaTa has bipolar disorder in real life but, like his character in the show, he is able to manage it with medication.[226]
A link between mental illness and professional success or creativity has been suggested, including in accounts by Socrates, Seneca the Younger, and Cesare Lombroso. Despite prominence in popular culture, the link between creativity and bipolar has not been rigorously studied. This area of study also is likely affected by confirmation bias. Some evidence suggests that some heritable component of bipolar disorder overlaps with heritable components of creativity. Probands of people with bipolar disorder are more likely to be professionally successful, as well as to demonstrate temperamental traits similar to bipolar disorder. Furthermore, while studies of the frequency of bipolar disorder in creative population samples have been conflicting, full-blown bipolar disorder in creative samples is rare.[227]
Research
Research directions for bipolar disorder in children include optimizing treatments, increasing the knowledge of the genetic and neurobiological basis of the pediatric disorder and improving diagnostic criteria.[123] Some treatment research suggests that psychosocial interventions that involve the family, psychoeducation, and skills building (through therapies such as CBT, DBT, and IPSRT) can benefit in addition to pharmacotherapy.[158]
↑ Goodwin GM, Haddad PM, Ferrier IN, Aronson JK, Barnes T, Cipriani A, Coghill DR, Fazel S, Geddes JR, Grunze H, Holmes EA, Howes O, Hudson S, Hunt N, Jones I, Macmillan IC, McAllister-Williams H, Miklowitz DR, Morriss R, Munafò M, Paton C, Saharkian BJ, Saunders K, Sinclair J, Taylor D, Vieta E, Young AH (June 2016). "Evidence-based guidelines for treating bipolar disorder: Revised third edition recommendations from the British Association for Psychopharmacology". Journal of Psychopharmacology. 30 (6): 495–553. doi:10.1177/0269881116636545. PMC4922419. PMID26979387. Currently, medication remains the key to successful practice for most patients in the long term. ... At present the preferred strategy is for continuous rather than intermittent treatment with oral medicines to prevent new mood episodes.
↑ Cheniaux E, Nardi AE (October 2019). "Evaluating the efficacy and safety of antidepressants in patients with bipolar disorder". Expert Opinion on Drug Safety. 18 (10): 893–913. doi:10.1080/14740338.2019.1651291. PMID31364895. S2CID198997808.
1 2 Ferrari AJ, Stockings E, Khoo JP, Erskine HE, Degenhardt L, Vos T, Whiteford HA (August 2016). "The prevalence and burden of bipolar disorder: findings from the Global Burden of Disease Study 2013". Bipolar Disorders (Review). 18 (5): 440–450. doi:10.1111/bdi.12423. hdl:11343/291577. PMID27566286. S2CID46097223.
↑ Christie KA, Burke JD, Regier DA, Rae DS, Boyd JH, Locke BZ (1988). "Epidemiologic evidence for early onset of mental disorders and higher risk of drug abuse in young adults". The American Journal of Psychiatry. 145 (8): 971–975. doi:10.1176/ajp.145.8.971. PMID3394882.
1 2 Reus V (2022). "Chapter 452: Psychiatric Disorders". Harrison's Principles of Internal Medicine (21sted.). New York: McGraw Hill. ISBN978-1-264-26850-4.
1 2 Akiskal H (2017). "13.4 Mood Disorders: Clinical Features". In Sadock B, Sadock V, Ruiz P (eds.). Kaplan and Sadock's Comprehensive Textbook of Psychiatry (10thed.). New York: Wolters Kluwer.[ISBNmissing]
↑ Srivastava S, Ketter TA (December 2010). "The link between bipolar disorders and creativity: evidence from personality and temperament studies". Current Psychiatry Reports. 12 (6): 522–530. doi:10.1007/s11920-010-0159-x. PMID20936438. S2CID1880847.
1 2 3 4 5 Muneer A (June 2013). "Treatment of the depressive phase of bipolar affective disorder: a review". JPMA. The Journal of the Pakistan Medical Association (Review). 63 (6): 763–769. PMID23901682.
↑ Muzina DJ, Kemp DE, McIntyre RS (October–December 2007). "Differentiating bipolar disorders from major depressive disorders: treatment implications". Ann Clin Psychiatry. 19 (4): 305–312. doi:10.1080/10401230701653591. PMID18058287.
1 2 3 4 5 Swann AC, Lafer B, Perugi G, Frye MA, Bauer M, Bahk WM, Scott J, Ha K, Suppes T (January 2013). "Bipolar mixed states: an international society for bipolar disorders task force report of symptom structure, course of illness, and diagnosis". Am J Psychiatry. 170 (1): 31–42. doi:10.1176/appi.ajp.2012.12030301. PMID23223893.
↑ de Francisco Carvalho L, Sette CP, Ferrari BL (2018). "Problematic smartphone use relationship with pathological personality traits: Systematic review and meta-analysis". Cyberpsychology: Journal of Psychosocial Research on Cyberspace. 12 (3). Masaryk University: 5. doi:10.5817/CP2018-3-5.
↑ Pan X, Wang R (2021). "Is Problematic Internet use a risk factor for bipolar disorder—Evidence from Meta-Analysis". 2021 2nd International Conference on Big Data and Informatization Education (ICBDIE). Vol.2021. Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers. pp.540–544. doi:10.1109/ICBDIE52740.2021.00129. ISBN978-1-6654-3870-4.
↑ Augner C, Vlasak T, Barth A (2023). "The relationship between problematic internet use and attention deficit, hyperactivity and impulsivity: A meta-analysis". Journal of Psychiatric Research. 168. Elsevier: 1–12. doi:10.1016/j.jpsychires.2023.10.032. PMID37866293. S2CID264190691.
↑ Messer T, Lammers G, Müller-Siecheneder F, Schmidt RF, Latifi S (July 2017). "Substance abuse in patients with bipolar disorder: A systematic review and meta-analysis". Psychiatry Research. 253: 338–350. doi:10.1016/j.psychres.2017.02.067. PMID28419959. S2CID24177245.
1 2 Nierenberg AA, Kansky C, Brennan BP, Shelton RC, Perlis R, Iosifescu DV (January 2013). "Mitochondrial modulators for bipolar disorder: a pathophysiologically informed paradigm for new drug development". Aust N Z J Psychiatry. 47 (1): 26–42. doi:10.1177/0004867412449303. PMID22711881. S2CID22983555.
1 2 3 4 Edvardsen J, Torgersen S, Røysamb E, Lygren S, Skre I, Onstad S, Oien PA (2008). "Heritability of bipolar spectrum disorders. Unity or heterogeneity?". Journal of Affective Disorders. 106 (3): 229–240. doi:10.1016/j.jad.2007.07.001. PMID17692389.
↑ Kieseppä T, Partonen T, Haukka J, Kaprio J, Lönnqvist J (2004). "High Concordance of Bipolar I Disorder in a Nationwide Sample of Twins". American Journal of Psychiatry. 161 (10): 1814–1821. doi:10.1176/appi.ajp.161.10.1814. PMID15465978.
↑ Houenou J, Frommberger J, Carde S, Glasbrenner M, Diener C, Leboyer M, Wessa M (August 2011). "Neuroimaging-based markers of bipolar disorder: evidence from two meta-analyses". Journal of Affective Disorders. 132 (3): 344–355. doi:10.1016/j.jad.2011.03.016. PMID21470688.
↑ Lahera G, Freund N, Sáiz-Ruiz J (January–March 2013). "Salience and dysregulation of the dopaminergic system". Rev Psquiatr Salud Ment. 6 (1): 45–51. doi:10.1016/j.rpsm.2012.05.003. PMID23084802.
↑ Berk M, Dodd S, Kauer-Sant'anna M, Malhi GS, Bourin M, Kapczinski F, Norman T (2007). "Dopamine dysregulation syndrome: implications for a dopamine hypothesis of bipolar disorder". Acta Psychiatr Scand Suppl. 116 (Supplement s434): 41–49. doi:10.1111/j.1600-0447.2007.01058.x. PMID17688462. S2CID41155120.
↑ Michael N, Erfurth A, Ohrmann P, Gössling M, Arolt V, Heindel W, Pfleiderer B (2003). "Acute mania is accompanied by elevated glutamate/glutamine levels within the left dorsolateral prefrontal cortex". Psychopharmacology. 168 (3): 344–346. doi:10.1007/s00213-003-1440-z. PMID12684737. S2CID19662149.
↑ Perugi G, Ghaemi SN, Akiskal H (2006). "Diagnostic and Clinical Management Approaches to Bipolar Depression, Bipolar II and Their Comorbidities". Bipolar Psychopharmacotherapy: Caring for the Patient. pp.193–234. doi:10.1002/0470017953.ch11. ISBN978-0-470-01795-1.
1 2 Baldessarini RJ, Faedda GL, Offidani E, Vázquez GH, Marangoni C, Serra G, Tondo L (May 2013). "Antidepressant-associated mood-switching and transition from unipolar major depression to bipolar disorder: a review". J Affect Disord. 148 (1): 129–135. doi:10.1016/j.jad.2012.10.033. PMID23219059.
↑ Sood AB, Razdan A, Weller EB, Weller RA (2005). "How to differentiate bipolar disorder from attention deficit hyperactivity disorder and other common psychiatric disorders: A guide for clinicians". Current Psychiatry Reports. 7 (2): 98–103. doi:10.1007/s11920-005-0005-8. PMID15802085. S2CID32254230.
↑ Bassett D (2012). "Borderline personality disorder and bipolar affective disorder. Spectra or spectre? A review". Australian and New Zealand Journal of Psychiatry. 46 (4): 327–339. doi:10.1177/0004867411435289. PMID22508593. S2CID33811755.
↑ "Bipolar disorder". Harvard Health Publishing. November 2007. Retrieved April 11, 2019.
↑ Durand VM (2015). Essentials of abnormal psychology. [Place of publication not identified]: Cengage Learning. p.267. ISBN978-1-305-63368-1. OCLC884617637.
↑ Buoli M, Serati M, Altamura AC (December 2017). "Biological aspects and candidate biomarkers for rapid-cycling in bipolar disorder: A systematic review". Psychiatry Research (Review). 258: 565–575. doi:10.1016/j.psychres.2017.08.059. PMID28864122. S2CID13653149.
↑ Tillman R, Geller B (2003). "Definitions of rapid, ultrarapid, and ultradian cycling and of episode duration in pediatric and adult bipolar disorders: a proposal to distinguish episodes from cycles". Journal of Child and Adolescent Psychopharmacology. 13 (3): 267–71. doi:10.1089/104454603322572598. PMID14642014.
1 2 3 4 Post RM (March 2016). "Treatment of Bipolar Depression: Evolving Recommendations". The Psychiatric Clinics of North America (Review). 39 (1): 11–33. doi:10.1016/j.psc.2015.09.001. PMID26876316.
↑ Anthony J, Scott P (1960). "Manic–depressive Psychosis in Childhood". Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry. 1: 53–72. doi:10.1111/j.1469-7610.1960.tb01979.x.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 Diler RS, Birmaher B (2019). "Chapter E2 Bipolar Disorders in Children and Adolescents". JM Rey's IACAPAP e-Textbook of Child and Adolescent Mental Health(PDF). Geneva: International Association for Child and Adolescent Psychiatry and Allied Professions. pp.1–37. Archived(PDF) from the original on October 9, 2022. Retrieved March 18, 2020.
↑ Faedda GL, Baldessarini RJ, Marangoni C, Bechdolf A, Berk M, Birmaher B, etal. (December 2019). "An International Society of Bipolar Disorders task force report: Precursors and prodromes of bipolar disorder". Bipolar Disorders. 21 (8): 720–740. doi:10.1111/bdi.12831. hdl:11343/286430. PMID31479581. S2CID201829716.
↑ Becker T, Kilian R (2006). "Psychiatric services for people with severe mental illness across western Europe: What can be generalized from current knowledge about differences in provision, costs and outcomes of mental health care?". Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavica. 113 (429): 9–16. doi:10.1111/j.1600-0447.2005.00711.x. PMID16445476. S2CID34615961.
↑ McGurk SR, Mueser KT, Feldman K, Wolfe R, Pascaris A (2007). "Cognitive Training for Supported Employment: 2–3 Year Outcomes of a Randomized Controlled Trial". American Journal of Psychiatry. 164 (3): 437–441. doi:10.1176/appi.ajp.164.3.437. PMID17329468.
↑ Sá Filho AS, Cheniaux E, de Paula CC, Murillo-Rodriguez E, Teixeira D, Monteiro D, Cid L, Yamamoto T, Telles-Correia D, Imperatori C, Budde H, Machado S (November 1, 2020). "Exercise is medicine: a new perspective for health promotion in bipolar disorder". Expert Review of Neurotherapeutics. 20 (11): 1099–1107. doi:10.1080/14737175.2020.1807329. hdl:10400.15/3006. PMID32762382.
↑ Macritchie K, Geddes JR, Scott J, Haslam D, de Lima M, Goodwin G (2003). Reid K (ed.). "Valproate for acute mood episodes in bipolar disorder". Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews (1): CD004052. doi:10.1002/14651858.CD004052. PMID12535506.
↑ Post RM, Ketter TA, Uhde T, Ballenger JC (2007). "Thirty years of clinical experience with carbamazepine in the treatment of bipolar illness: Principles and practice". CNS Drugs. 21 (1): 47–71. doi:10.2165/00023210-200721010-00005. PMID17190529. S2CID105594.
↑ Vasudev K, Macritchie K, Geddes J, Watson S, Young A (2006). Young AH (ed.). "Topiramate for acute affective episodes in bipolar disorder". Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews (1): CD003384. doi:10.1002/14651858.CD003384.pub2. PMID16437453.
↑ Cipriani A, Rendell JM, Geddes J (January 2009). Cipriani A (ed.). "Olanzapine in long-term treatment for bipolar disorder". The Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews (1): CD004367. doi:10.1002/14651858.CD004367.pub2. PMID19160237.
↑ Cipriani A, Rendell JM, Geddes JR (July 2006). "Haloperidol alone or in combination for acute mania". The Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews (3): CD004362. doi:10.1002/14651858.CD004362.pub2. PMID16856043.
1 2 Tse S, Chan S, Ng KL, Yatham LN (May 2014). "Meta-analysis of predictors of favorable employment outcomes among individuals with bipolar disorder". Bipolar Disorders. 16 (3): 217–229. doi:10.1111/bdi.12148. PMID24219657. S2CID207065294.
↑ Tohen M, Zarate CA, Hennen J, Khalsa HM, Strakowski SM, Gebre-Medhin P, Salvatore P, Baldessarini RJ (2003). "The McLean-Harvard First-Episode Mania Study: Prediction of recovery and first recurrence". The American Journal of Psychiatry. 160 (12): 2099–2107. doi:10.1176/appi.ajp.160.12.2099. hdl:11381/1461461. PMID14638578. S2CID30881311.
↑ Jackson A, Cavanagh J, Scott J (2003). "A systematic review of manic and depressive prodromes". Journal of Affective Disorders. 74 (3): 209–217. doi:10.1016/s0165-0327(02)00266-5. PMID12738039.
↑ Lam D, Wong G (2005). "Prodromes, coping strategies and psychological interventions in bipolar disorders". Clinical Psychology Review. 25 (8): 1028–1042. doi:10.1016/j.cpr.2005.06.005. PMID16125292.
↑ Moreira AL, Van Meter A, Genzlinger J, Youngstrom EA (2017). "Review and Meta-Analysis of Epidemiologic Studies of Adult Bipolar Disorder". The Journal of Clinical Psychiatry. 78 (9): e1259–e1269. doi:10.4088/JCP.16r11165. PMID29188905. S2CID3763712.
↑ Judd LL, Akiskal HS (January 2003). "The prevalence and disability of bipolar spectrum disorders in the US population: re-analysis of the ECA database taking into account subthreshold cases". Journal of Affective Disorders. 73 (1–2): 123–131. doi:10.1016/s0165-0327(02)00332-4. PMID12507745.
↑ Ferrari AJ, Baxter AJ, Whiteford HA (November 2011). "A systematic review of the global distribution and availability of prevalence data for bipolar disorder". Journal of Affective Disorders. 134 (1–3): 1–13. doi:10.1016/j.jad.2010.11.007. PMID21131055.
↑ Borch-Jacobsen M (October 2010). "Which came first, the condition or the drug?". London Review of Books. 32 (19): 31–33. Archived from the original on March 13, 2015. at the beginning of the 19th century with Esquirol's 'affective monomanias' (notably 'lypemania', the first elaboration of what was to become our modern depression)
↑ Angst J, Marneros A (December 2001). "Bipolarity from ancient to modern times: conception, birth and rebirth". J Affect Disord. 67 (1–3): 3–19. doi:10.1016/s0165-0327(01)00429-3. PMID11869749.
↑ Kleine-Budde K, Touil E, Moock J, Bramesfeld A, Kawohl W, Rössler W (June 2014). "Cost of illness for bipolar disorder: a systematic review of the economic burden". Bipolar Disorders (Review). 16 (4): 337–353. doi:10.1111/bdi.12165. PMID24372893. S2CID25742003.
↑ Akiskal H, Akiskal K (2010). "The Genius-Insanity Debate: Focus on Bipolarity, Temperament, Creativity and Leadership". In Lakshmi Y (ed.). Bipolar Disorder: Clinical and Neurobiological Foundations. Wiley. pp.83–89. doi:10.1002/9780470661277.ch9. ISBN978-0-470-66127-7.
Bipolar I disorder is a type of bipolar spectrum disorder characterized by the occurrence of at least one manic episode, with or without mixed or psychotic features. Most people also, at other times, have one or more depressive episodes. Typically, these manic episodes can last at least 7 days for most of each day to the extent that the individual may need medical attention, while the depressive episodes last at least 2 weeks.
Major depressive disorder (MDD), also known as clinical depression, is a mental disorder characterized by at least two weeks of pervasive low mood, low self-esteem, and loss of interest or pleasure in normally enjoyable activities. Introduced by a group of US clinicians in the mid-1970s, the term was adopted by the American Psychiatric Association for this symptom cluster under mood disorders in the 1980 version of the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM-III), and has become widely used since. The disorder causes the second-most years lived with disability, after lower back pain.
Mania, also known as manic syndrome, is a psychiatric behavioral syndrome defined as a state of abnormally elevated arousal, affect, and energy level. During a manic episode, an individual will experience rapidly changing emotions and moods, highly influenced by surrounding stimuli. Although mania is often conceived of as a "mirror image" to depression, the heightened mood can be dysphoric as well as euphoric. As the mania intensifies, irritability can be more pronounced and result in anxiety or anger.
A mood stabilizer is a psychiatric medication used to treat mood disorders characterized by intense and sustained mood shifts, such as bipolar disorder and the bipolar type of schizoaffective disorder.
A mood disorder, also known as an affective disorder, is any of a group of conditions of mental and behavioral disorder where the main underlying characteristic is a disturbance in the person's mood. The classification is in the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM) and International Classification of Diseases (ICD).
Schizoaffective disorder is a mental disorder characterized by symptoms of both schizophrenia (psychosis) and a mood disorder - either bipolar disorder or depression. The main diagnostic criterion is the presence of psychotic symptoms for at least two weeks without prominent mood symptoms. Common symptoms include hallucinations, delusions, disorganized speech and thinking, as well as mood episodes. Schizoaffective disorder can often be misdiagnosed when the correct diagnosis may be psychotic depression, bipolar I disorder, schizophreniform disorder, or schizophrenia. This is a problem as treatment and prognosis differ greatly for most of these diagnoses. Many people with schizoaffective disorder have other mental disorders including anxiety disorders.
Dysthymia, also known as persistent depressive disorder (PDD), is a mental and behavioral disorder, specifically a disorder primarily of mood, consisting of similar cognitive and physical problems as major depressive disorder, but with longer-lasting symptoms. The concept was used by Robert Spitzer as a replacement for the term "depressive personality" in the late 1970s.
A mixed affective state, formerly known as a mixed-manic or mixed episode, has been defined as a state wherein features and symptoms unique to both depression and (hypo)mania, including episodes of anguish, despair, self doubt, rage, excessive impulsivity and suicidal ideation, sensory overload, racing thoughts, heightened irritability, decreased "need" for sleep and other symptoms of depressive and manic states occur either simultaneously or in very short succession.
The emphasis of the treatment of bipolar disorder is on effective management of the long-term course of the illness, which can involve treatment of emergent symptoms. Treatment methods include pharmacological and psychological techniques.
Cyclical variations in moods and energy levels have been recorded at least as far back as several thousand years. The words "melancholia" and "mania" have their etymologies in Ancient Greek. The word melancholia is derived from melas/μελας, meaning "black", and chole/χολη, meaning "bile" or "gall", indicative of the term's origins in pre-Hippocratic humoral theories. A man known as Aretaeus of Cappadocia has the first records of analyzing the symptoms of depression and mania in the 1st century of Greece. There is documentation that explains how bath salts were used to calm those with manic symptoms and also help those who are dealing with depression. Even today, lithium is used as a treatment to bipolar disorder which is significant because lithium could have been an ingredient in the Greek bath salt. Centuries passed and very little was studied or discovered. It wasn't until the mid-19th century that a French psychiatrist by the name of Jean-Pierre Falret wrote an article describing "circular insanity" and this is believed to be the first recorded diagnosis of bipolar disorder. Years later, in the early 1900s, Emil Kraepelin, a German psychiatrist, analyzed the influence of biology on mental disorders, including bipolar disorder. His studies are still used as the basis of classification of mental disorders today.
Bipolar disorder in children, or pediatric bipolar disorder (PBD), is a rare mental disorder in children and adolescents. The diagnosis of bipolar disorder in children has been heavily debated for many reasons including the potential harmful effects of adult bipolar medication use for children. PBD is similar to bipolar disorder (BD) in adults, and has been proposed as an explanation for periods of extreme shifts in mood called mood episodes. These shifts alternate between periods of depressed or irritable moods and periods of abnormally elevated moods called manic or hypomanic episodes. Mixed mood episodes can occur when a child or adolescent with PBD experiences depressive and manic symptoms simultaneously. Mood episodes of children and adolescents with PBD are different from general shifts in mood experienced by children and adolescents because mood episodes last for long periods of time and cause severe disruptions to an individual's life. There are three known forms of PBD: Bipolar I, Bipolar II, and Bipolar Not Otherwise Specified (NOS). The average age of onset of PBD remains unclear, but reported age of onset ranges from 5 years of age to 19 years of age. PBD is typically more severe and has a poorer prognosis than bipolar disorder with onset in late-adolescence or adulthood.
In medicine, a prodrome is an early sign or symptom that often indicates the onset of a disease before more diagnostically specific signs and symptoms develop. More specifically, it refers to the period between the first recognition of a disease's symptom until it reaches its more severe form. It is derived from the Greek word prodromos, meaning "running before". Prodromes may be non-specific symptoms or, in a few instances, may clearly indicate a particular disease, such as the prodromal migraine aura.
Bipolar II disorder (BP-II) is a mood disorder on the bipolar spectrum, characterized by at least one episode of hypomania and at least one episode of major depression. Diagnosis for BP-II requires that the individual must never have experienced a full manic episode. Otherwise, one manic episode meets the criteria for bipolar I disorder (BP-I).
Cyclothymia, also known as cyclothymic disorder, psychothemia / psychothymia, bipolar III, affective personality disorder and cyclothymic personality disorder, is a mental and behavioural disorder that involves numerous periods of symptoms of depression and periods of symptoms of elevated mood. These symptoms, however, are not sufficient to indicate a major depressive episode or a manic episode. Symptoms must last for more than one year in children and two years in adults.
The associated features of bipolar disorder are clinical phenomena that often accompany bipolar disorder (BD) but are not part of the diagnostic criteria for the disorder. There are several childhood precursors in children who later receive a diagnosis of bipolar disorder. They may show subtle early traits such as mood abnormalities, full major depressive episodes, and attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder. BD is also accompanied by changes in cognition processes and abilities. This includes reduced attentional and executive capabilities and impaired memory. How the individual processes the world also depends on the phase of the disorder, with differential characteristics between the manic, hypomanic and depressive states. Some studies have found a significant association between bipolar disorder and creativity.
The Mood Disorder Questionnaire (MDQ) is a self-report questionnaire designed to help detect bipolar disorder. It focuses on symptoms of hypomania and mania, which are the mood states that separate bipolar disorders from other types of depression and mood disorder. It has 5 main questions, and the first question has 13 parts, for a total of 17 questions. The MDQ was originally tested with adults, but it also has been studied in adolescents ages 11 years and above. It takes approximately 5–10 minutes to complete. In 2006, a parent-report version was created to allow for assessment of bipolar symptoms in children or adolescents from a caregiver perspective, with the research looking at youths as young as 5 years old. The MDQ has become one of the most widely studied and used questionnaires for bipolar disorder, and it has been translated into more than a dozen languages.
Hypomania is a psychiatric behavioral syndrome characterized essentially by an apparently non-contextual elevation of mood that contributes to persistently disinhibited behavior.
The General Behavior Inventory (GBI) is a 73-question psychological self-report assessment tool designed by Richard Depue and colleagues to identify the presence and severity of manic and depressive moods in adults, as well as to assess for cyclothymia. It is one of the most widely used psychometric tests for measuring the severity of bipolar disorder and the fluctuation of symptoms over time. The GBI is intended to be administered for adult populations; however, it has been adapted into versions that allow for juvenile populations, as well as a short version that allows for it to be used as a screening test.
Sleep is known to play an important role in the etiology and maintenance of bipolar disorder. Patients with bipolar disorder often have a less stable and more variable circadian activity. Circadian activity disruption can be apparent even if the person concerned is not currently ill.
Epigenetics of bipolar disorder is the effect that epigenetics has on triggering and maintaining bipolar disorder.
This page is based on this Wikipedia article Text is available under the CC BY-SA 4.0 license; additional terms may apply. Images, videos and audio are available under their respective licenses.
