Insular cortex

Last updated
Insular cortex
Sobo 1909 633.png
Right insula, exposed by removing the opercula
Insular cortex.gif
3D view of the insular cortex
Details
Part of cerebral cortex of brain
Artery Middle cerebral
Identifiers
Latin cortex insularis
MeSH D000087623
NeuroNames 111
NeuroLex ID birnlex_1117
TA98 A14.1.09.149
A12.2.07.053
TA2 5502
FMA 67329
Anatomical terms of neuroanatomy

The insular cortex (also insula and insular lobe) is a portion of the cerebral cortex folded deep within the lateral sulcus (the fissure separating the temporal lobe from the parietal and frontal lobes) within each hemisphere of the mammalian brain.

Contents

The insulae are believed to be involved in consciousness and play a role in diverse functions usually linked to emotion or the regulation of the body's homeostasis. These functions include compassion, empathy, taste, perception, motor control, self-awareness, cognitive functioning, interpersonal relationships, and awareness of homeostatic emotions such as hunger, pain and fatigue. In relation to these, it is involved in psychopathology.

The insular cortex is divided into two parts: the anterior insula and the posterior insula in which more than a dozen field areas have been identified. The cortical area overlying the insula toward the lateral surface of the brain is the operculum (meaning lid). The opercula are formed from parts of the enclosing frontal, temporal, and parietal lobes.

Structure

Connections

The anterior part of the insula is subdivided by shallow sulci into three or four short gyri.

The anterior insula receives a direct projection from the basal part of the ventral medial nucleus of the thalamus and a particularly large input from the central nucleus of the amygdala. In addition, the anterior insula itself projects to the amygdala.

One study on rhesus monkeys revealed widespread reciprocal connections between the insular cortex and almost all subnuclei of the amygdaloid complex. The posterior insula projects predominantly to the dorsal aspect of the lateral and to the central amygdaloid nuclei. In contrast, the anterior insula projects to the anterior amygdaloid area as well as the medial, the cortical, the accessory basal magnocellular, the medial basal, and the lateral amygdaloid nuclei. [1]

The posterior part of the insula is formed by a long gyrus.

The posterior insula connects reciprocally with the secondary somatosensory cortex and receives input from spinothalamically activated ventral posterior inferior thalamic nuclei. It has also been shown that this region receives inputs from the ventromedial nucleus (posterior part) of the thalamus that are highly specialized to convey homeostatic information such as pain, temperature, itch, local oxygen status, and sensual touch. [2]

A human neuroimaging study using diffusion tensor imaging revealed that the anterior insula is interconnected to regions in the temporal and occipital lobe, opercular and orbitofrontal cortex, triangular and opercular parts of the inferior frontal gyrus. The same study revealed differences in the anatomical connection patterns between the left and right hemisphere. [3]

The 'circular sulcus of insula' (or sulcus of Reil [4] ) is a semi-circular sulcus or fissure [4] that separates the insula from the neighboring gyri of the operculum [5] in the front, above, and behind. [4]

Cytoarchitecture

The insular cortex has regions of variable cell structure or cytoarchitecture, changing from granular in the posterior portion to agranular in the anterior portion. The insula also receives differential cortical and thalamic input along its length. The anterior insular cortex contains a population of spindle neurons (also called von Economo neurons), identified as characterising a distinctive subregion as the agranular frontal insula. [6]

Development

The insular cortex is considered a separate lobe of the telencephalon by some authorities. [7] Other sources see the insula as a part of the temporal lobe. [8] It is also sometimes grouped with limbic structures deep in the brain into a limbic lobe.[ citation needed ] As a paralimbic cortex, the insular cortex is considered to be a relatively old structure.

Function

Multimodal sensory processing, sensory binding

Functional imaging studies show activation of the insula during audio-visual integration tasks. [9] [10]

Taste

The anterior insula is part of the primary gustatory cortex. [11] [12] Research in rhesus monkeys has also reported that apart from numerous taste-sensitive neurons, the insular cortex also responds to non-taste properties of oral stimuli related to the texture (viscosity, grittiness) or temperature of food. [13]

Speech

The sensory speech region, Wernicke’s area, and the motor speech region, Broca’s area, are interconnected by a large axonal fiber system known as the arcuate fasciculus which passes directly beneath the insular cortex. On account of this anatomical architecture, ischemic strokes in the insular region can disrupt the arcuate fasciculus. [14] Functional imaging studies on the cerebral correlates of language production also suggest that the anterior insula forms part of the brain network of speech motor control. [15] Moreover, electrical stimulation of the posterior insular can evoke speech disturbances such as speech arrest and reduced voice intensity. [16]

Lesion of the pre-central gyrus of the insula can also cause “pure speech apraxia” (i.e. the inability to speak with no apparent aphasic or orofacial motor impairments). [17] This demonstrates that the insular cortex forms part of a critical circuit for the coordination of complex articulatory movements prior to and during the execution of the motor speech plans. [17] Importantly, this specific cortical circuit is different from those that relate to the cognitive aspects of language production (e.g., Broca’s area on the inferior frontal gyrus). [17] Subvocal, or silent, speech has also been shown to activate right insular cortex, further supporting the theory that the motor control of speech proceeds from the insula. [18]

Interoceptive awareness

There is evidence that, in addition to its base functions, the insula may play a role in certain higher-level functions that operate only in humans and other great apes. The spindle neurons found at a higher density in the right frontal insular cortex are also found in the anterior cingulate cortex, which is another region that has reached a high level of specialization in great apes. It has been speculated that these neurons are involved in cognitive-emotional processes that are specific to primates including great apes, such as empathy and metacognitive emotional feelings. This is supported by functional imaging results showing that the structure and function of the right frontal insula is correlated with the ability to feel one's own heartbeat, or to empathize with the pain of others. It is thought that these functions are not distinct from the lower-level functions of the insula but rather arise as a consequence of the role of the insula in conveying homeostatic information to consciousness. [19] [20] The right anterior insula is engaged in interoceptive awareness of homeostatic emotions such as thirst, pain and fatigue, [21] and the ability to time one's own heartbeat. Moreover, greater right anterior insular gray matter volume correlates with increased accuracy in this subjective sense of the inner body, and with negative emotional experience. [22] It is also involved in the control of blood pressure, [23] in particular during and after exercise, [23] and its activity varies with the amount of effort a person believes he/she is exerting. [24] [25]

The insular cortex also is where the sensation of pain is judged as to its degree. [26] Lesion of the insula is associated with dramatic loss of pain perception and isolated insular infarction can lead to contralateral elimination of pinprick perception. [27] Further, the insula is where a person imagines pain when looking at images of painful events while thinking about their happening to one's own body. [28] Those with irritable bowel syndrome have abnormal processing of visceral pain in the insular cortex related to dysfunctional inhibition of pain within the brain. [29]

Physiological studies in rhesus monkeys have shown that neurons in the insula respond to skin stimulation. [30] PET studies have also revealed that the human insula can also be activated by vibrational stimulation to the skin. [31]

Another perception of the right anterior insula is the degree of nonpainful warmth [32] or nonpainful coldness [33] of a skin sensation. Other internal sensations processed by the insula include stomach or abdominal distension. [34] [35] A full bladder also activates the insular cortex. [36]

One brain imaging study suggests that the unpleasantness of subjectively perceived dyspnea is processed in the right human anterior insula and amygdala. [37]

The cerebral cortex processing vestibular sensations extends into the insula, [38] with small lesions in the anterior insular cortex being able to cause loss of balance and vertigo. [39]

Other noninteroceptive perceptions include passive listening to music, [40] laughter and crying, [41] empathy and compassion, [42] and language. [43]

Motor control

In motor control, it contributes to hand-and-eye motor movement, [44] [45] swallowing, [46] gastric motility, [47] and speech articulation. [48] [49] It has been identified as a "central command” centre that ensures that heart rate and blood pressure increase at the onset of exercise. [50] Research upon conversation links it to the capacity for long and complex spoken sentences. [51] It is also involved in motor learning [52] and has been identified as playing a role in the motor recovery from stroke. [53]

Homeostasis

It plays a role in a variety of homeostatic functions related to basic survival needs, such as taste, visceral sensation, and autonomic control. The insula controls autonomic functions through the regulation of the sympathetic and parasympathetic systems. [54] [55] It has a role in regulating the immune system. [56] [57] [58]

Self

The insula has been identified as playing a role in the experience of bodily self-awareness, [59] [60] sense of agency, [61] and sense of body ownership. [62]

Social emotions

The anterior insula processes a person's sense of disgust both to smells [63] and to the sight of contamination and mutilation [64] — even when just imagining the experience. [65] This associates with a mirror neuron-like link between external and internal experiences.

In social experience, it is involved in the processing of norm violations, [66] emotional processing, [67] empathy, [68] and orgasms. [69]

The insula is active during social decision making. Tiziana Quarto et al. measured emotional intelligence (EI) (the ability to identify, regulate, and process emotions of themselves and of others) of sixty-three healthy subjects. Using fMRI EI was measured in correlation with left insular activity. The subjects were shown various pictures of facial expressions and tasked with deciding to approach or avoid the person in the picture. The results of the social decision task yielded that individuals with high EI scores had left insular activation when processing fearful faces. Individuals with low EI scores had left insular activation when processing angry faces. [70]

Emotions

The insular cortex, in particular its most anterior portion, is considered a limbic-related cortex. The insula has increasingly become the focus of attention for its role in body representation and subjective emotional experience. In particular, Antonio Damasio has proposed that this region plays a role in mapping visceral states that are associated with emotional experience, giving rise to conscious feelings. This is in essence a neurobiological formulation of the ideas of William James, who first proposed that subjective emotional experience (i.e., feelings) arise from our brain's interpretation of bodily states that are elicited by emotional events. This is an example of embodied cognition.

In terms of function, the insula is believed to process convergent information to produce an emotionally relevant context for sensory experience. To be specific, the anterior insula is related more to olfactory, gustatory, viscero-autonomic, and limbic function, whereas the posterior insula is related more to auditory-somesthetic-skeletomotor function. Functional imaging experiments have revealed that the insula has an important role in pain experience and the experience of a number of basic emotions, including anger, fear, disgust, happiness, and sadness. [71]

The anterior insular cortex (AIC) is believed to be responsible for emotional feelings, including maternal and romantic love, anger, fear, sadness, happiness, sexual arousal, disgust, aversion, unfairness, inequity, indignation, uncertainty, [72] disbelief, social exclusion, trust, empathy, sculptural beauty, a ‘state of union with God’, and hallucinogenic states. [73]

Functional imaging studies have also implicated the insula in conscious desires, such as food craving and drug craving. What is common to all of these emotional states is that they each change the body in some way and are associated with highly salient subjective qualities. The insula is well-situated for the integration of information relating to bodily states into higher-order cognitive and emotional processes. The insula receives information from "homeostatic afferent" sensory pathways via the thalamus and sends output to a number of other limbic-related structures, such as the amygdala, the ventral striatum, and the orbitofrontal cortex, as well as to motor cortices. [74]

A study using magnetic resonance imaging found that the right anterior insula is significantly thicker in people that meditate. [75] Other research into brain activity and meditation has shown an increase in grey matter in areas of the brain including the insular cortex. [76]

Another study using voxel-based morphometry and MRI on experienced Vipassana meditators was done to extend the findings of Lazar et al., which found increased grey matter concentrations in this and other areas of the brain in experienced meditators. [77]

The strongest evidence against a causative role for the insula cortex in emotion comes from Damasio et al. (2012) [78] which showed that a patient who suffered bilateral lesions of the insula cortex expressed the full complement of human emotions, and was fully capable of emotional learning.

Salience

Functional neuroimaging research suggests the insula is involved in two types of salience. Interoceptive information processing that links interoception with emotional salience to generate a subjective representation of the body. This involves, first, the anterior insular cortex with the pregenual anterior cingulate cortex (Brodmann area 33) and the anterior and posterior mid-cingulate cortices, and, second, a general salience network concerned with environmental monitoring, response selection, and skeletomotor body orientation that involves all of the insular cortex and the mid-cingulate cortex. [79] A related idea is that the anterior insula, as part of the salience network, interacts with the mid-posterior insula to combine salient stimuli with autonomic information, leading to a high state of physiological awareness of salient stimuli. [80]

An alternative or perhaps complementary proposal is that the right anterior insular regulates the interaction between the salience of the selective attention created to achieve a task (the dorsal attention system) and the salience of arousal created to keep focused upon the relevant part of the environment (ventral attention system). [81] This regulation of salience might be particularly important during challenging tasks where attention might fatigue and so cause careless mistakes but if there is too much arousal it risks creating poor performance by turning into anxiety. [81]

Decision Making

Studies have shown that damage or dysfunction in the insular cortex can impair decision-making, emotional regulation, and social behavior. The insula is considered a key brain structure in the neural circuitry underlying complex decision-making processes. [82] It plays a significant role in integrating internal and external cues to facilitate adaptive choices.

Auditory perception

Recent research indicates that the insular cortex is involved in auditory perception. Responses to sound stimuli were obtained using intracranial EEG recordings acquired from patients with epilepsy. The posterior part of the insula showed auditory responses that resemble those observed in Heschl’s gyrus, whereas the anterior part responded to the emotional contents of the auditory stimuli. [83] Clinical data additionally shows that bilateral damage to the insula after ischemic injury or trauma can lead to auditory agnosia. [84] Functional magnetic resonance studies have also demonstrated that the insular cortex participates in many key auditory processes such as tuning into novel auditory stimuli and allocating auditory attention. [85]

Direct recordings from the posterior part of the insula showed responses to unexpected sounds within regular auditory streams, a process known as auditory deviance detection. Researchers observed a mismatch negativity (MMN) potential, a well known event related potential, as well as the high frequency activity signals originating from local neurons. [86]

Simple auditory illusions and hallucinations were elicited by electrical functional mapping. [87] [83]

Clinical significance

Progressive expressive aphasia

Progressive expressive aphasia is the deterioration of normal language function that causes individuals to lose the ability to communicate fluently while still being able to comprehend single words and intact other non-linguistic cognition. It is found in a variety of degenerative neurological conditions including Pick's disease, motor neuron disease, corticobasal degeneration, frontotemporal dementia, and Alzheimer's disease. It is associated with hypometabolism [88] and atrophy of the left anterior insular cortex. [89]

Addiction

A number of functional brain imaging studies have shown that the insular cortex is activated when drug users are exposed to environmental cues that trigger cravings. This has been shown for a variety of drugs, including cocaine, alcohol, opiates, and nicotine. Despite these findings, the insula has been ignored within the drug addiction literature, perhaps because it is not known to be a direct target of the mesocortical dopamine system, which is central to current dopamine reward theories of addiction. Research published in 2007 [90] has shown that cigarette smokers suffering damage to the insular cortex, from a stroke for instance, have their addiction to cigarettes practically eliminated. These individuals were found to be up to 136 times more likely to undergo a disruption of smoking addiction than smokers with damage in other areas. Disruption of addiction was evidenced by self-reported behavior changes such as quitting smoking less than one day after the brain injury, quitting smoking with great ease, not smoking again after quitting, and having no urge to resume smoking since quitting. The study was conducted on average eight years after the strokes, which opens up the possibility that recall bias could have affected the results. [91] More recent prospective studies, which overcome this limitation, have corroborated these findings [92] [93] This suggests a significant role for the insular cortex in the neurological mechanisms underlying addiction to nicotine and other drugs, and would make this area of the brain a possible target for novel anti-addiction medication. In addition, this finding suggests that functions mediated by the insula, especially conscious feelings, may be particularly important for maintaining drug addiction, although this view is not represented in any modern research or reviews of the subject. [94]

A recent study in rats by Contreras et al. [95] corroborates these findings by showing that reversible inactivation of the insula disrupts amphetamine conditioned place preference, an animal model of cue-induced drug craving. In this study, insula inactivation also disrupted "malaise" responses to lithium chloride injection, suggesting that the representation of negative interoceptive states by the insula plays a role in addiction. However, in this same study, the conditioned place preference took place immediately after the injection of amphetamine, suggesting that it is the immediate, pleasurable interoceptive effects of amphetamine administration, rather than the delayed, aversive effects of amphetamine withdrawal that are represented within the insula.

A model proposed by Naqvi et al. (see above) is that the insula stores a representation of the pleasurable interoceptive effects of drug use (e.g., the airway sensory effects of nicotine, the cardiovascular effects of amphetamine), and that this representation is activated by exposure to cues that have previously been associated with drug use. A number of functional imaging studies have shown the insula to be activated during the administration of addictive psychoactive drugs. Several functional imaging studies have also shown that the insula is activated when drug users are exposed to drug cues, and that this activity is correlated with subjective urges. In the cue-exposure studies, insula activity is elicited when there is no actual change in the level of drug in the body. Therefore, rather than merely representing the interoceptive effects of drug use as it occurs, the insula may play a role in memory for the pleasurable interoceptive effects of past drug use, anticipation of these effects in the future, or both. Such a representation may give rise to conscious urges that feel as if they arise from within the body. This may make addicts feel as if their bodies need to use a drug, and may result in persons with lesions in the insula reporting that their bodies have forgotten the urge to use, according to this study.

Subjective certainty in ecstatic seizures

A common quality in mystical experiences is a strong feeling of certainty which cannot be expressed in words. Fabienne Picard proposes a neurological explanation for this subjective certainty, based on clinical research of epilepsy. [96] [97] According to Picard, this feeling of certainty may be caused by a dysfunction of the anterior insula, a part of the brain which is involved in interoception, self-reflection, and in avoiding uncertainty about the internal representations of the world by "anticipation of resolution of uncertainty or risk". This avoidance of uncertainty functions through the comparison between predicted states and actual states, that is, "signaling that we do not understand, i.e., that there is ambiguity." [98] Picard notes that "the concept of insight is very close to that of certainty," and refers to Archimedes' "Eureka!" [99] [100] Picard hypothesizes that during ecstatic seizures the comparison between predicted states and actual states no longer functions, and that mismatches between predicted state and actual state are no longer processed, blocking "negative emotions and negative arousal arising from predictive uncertainty," which will be experienced as emotional confidence. [101] Picard concludes that "[t]his could lead to a spiritual interpretation in some individuals." [101]

Other clinical conditions

The insular cortex has been suggested to have a role in anxiety disorders, [102] emotion dysregulation, [103] and anorexia nervosa. [104]

History

The insula was first described by Johann Christian Reil while describing cranial and spinal nerves and plexuses. [105] Henry Gray in Gray's Anatomy is responsible for it being known as the Island of Reil. [105] John Allman and colleagues showed that anterior insular cortex contains spindle neurons.

Additional images

See also

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Anterior cingulate cortex</span> Brain region

In the human brain, the anterior cingulate cortex (ACC) is the frontal part of the cingulate cortex that resembles a "collar" surrounding the frontal part of the corpus callosum. It consists of Brodmann areas 24, 32, and 33.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Precuneus</span> Region of the parietal lobe of the brain

In neuroanatomy, the precuneus is the portion of the superior parietal lobule on the medial surface of each brain hemisphere. It is located in front of the cuneus. The precuneus is bounded in front by the marginal branch of the cingulate sulcus, at the rear by the parieto-occipital sulcus, and underneath by the subparietal sulcus. It is involved with episodic memory, visuospatial processing, reflections upon self, and aspects of consciousness.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Brodmann area 9</span> Part of the frontal cortex in the brain of humans and other primates

Brodmann area 9, or BA9, refers to a cytoarchitecturally defined portion of the frontal cortex in the brain of humans and other primates. Its cytoarchitecture is referred to as granular due to the concentration of granule cells in layer IV. It contributes to the dorsolateral and medial prefrontal cortex.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Inferior frontal gyrus</span> Part of the brains prefrontal cortex

The inferior frontal gyrus (IFG),, is the lowest positioned gyrus of the frontal gyri, of the frontal lobe, and is part of the prefrontal cortex.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Periaqueductal gray</span> Nucleus surrounding the cerebral aqueduct

The periaqueductal gray is a brain region that plays a critical role in autonomic function, motivated behavior and behavioural responses to threatening stimuli. PAG is also the primary control center for descending pain modulation. It has enkephalin-producing cells that suppress pain.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Language processing in the brain</span> How humans use words to communicate

In psycholinguistics, language processing refers to the way humans use words to communicate ideas and feelings, and how such communications are processed and understood. Language processing is considered to be a uniquely human ability that is not produced with the same grammatical understanding or systematicity in even human's closest primate relatives.

Affective neuroscience is the study of how the brain processes emotions. This field combines neuroscience with the psychological study of personality, emotion, and mood. The basis of emotions and what emotions are remains an issue of debate within the field of affective neuroscience.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Orbitofrontal cortex</span> Region of the prefrontal cortex of the brain

The orbitofrontal cortex (OFC) is a prefrontal cortex region in the frontal lobes of the brain which is involved in the cognitive process of decision-making. In non-human primates it consists of the association cortex areas Brodmann area 11, 12 and 13; in humans it consists of Brodmann area 10, 11 and 47.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Posterior cingulate cortex</span> Caudal part of the cingulate cortex of the brain

The posterior cingulate cortex (PCC) is the caudal part of the cingulate cortex, located posterior to the anterior cingulate cortex. This is the upper part of the "limbic lobe". The cingulate cortex is made up of an area around the midline of the brain. Surrounding areas include the retrosplenial cortex and the precuneus.

The simulation theory of empathy holds that humans anticipate and make sense of the behavior of others by activating mental processes that, if they culminated in action, would produce similar behavior. This includes intentional behavior as well as the expression of emotions. The theory says that children use their own emotions to predict what others will do; we project our own mental states onto others.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Superior temporal sulcus</span> Part of the brains temporal lobe

In the human brain, the superior temporal sulcus (STS) is the sulcus separating the superior temporal gyrus from the middle temporal gyrus in the temporal lobe of the brain. A sulcus is a deep groove that curves into the largest part of the brain, the cerebrum, and a gyrus is a ridge that curves outward of the cerebrum.

The neuroscience of music is the scientific study of brain-based mechanisms involved in the cognitive processes underlying music. These behaviours include music listening, performing, composing, reading, writing, and ancillary activities. It also is increasingly concerned with the brain basis for musical aesthetics and musical emotion. Scientists working in this field may have training in cognitive neuroscience, neurology, neuroanatomy, psychology, music theory, computer science, and other relevant fields.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Brain activity and meditation</span>

Meditation and its effect on brain activity and the central nervous system became a focus of collaborative research in neuroscience, psychology and neurobiology during the latter half of the 20th century. Research on meditation sought to define and characterize various practices. The effects of meditation on the brain can be broken up into two categories: state changes and trait changes, respectively alterations in brain activities during the act of meditating and changes that are the outcome of long-term practice.

Pain empathy is a specific variety of empathy that involves recognizing and understanding another person's pain.

Functional magnetic resonance spectroscopy of the brain (fMRS) uses magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) to study brain metabolism during brain activation. The data generated by fMRS usually shows spectra of resonances, instead of a brain image, as with MRI. The area under peaks in the spectrum represents relative concentrations of metabolites.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Mechanisms of mindfulness meditation</span>

Mindfulness has been defined in modern psychological terms as "paying attention to relevant aspects of experience in a nonjudgmental manner", and maintaining attention on present moment experience with an attitude of openness and acceptance. Meditation is a platform used to achieve mindfulness. Both practices, mindfulness and meditation, have been "directly inspired from the Buddhist tradition" and have been widely promoted by Jon Kabat-Zinn. Mindfulness meditation has been shown to have a positive impact on several psychiatric problems such as depression and therefore has formed the basis of mindfulness programs such as mindfulness-based cognitive therapy, mindfulness-based stress reduction and mindfulness-based pain management. The applications of mindfulness meditation are well established, however the mechanisms that underlie this practice are yet to be fully understood. Many tests and studies on soldiers with PTSD have shown tremendous positive results in decreasing stress levels and being able to cope with problems of the past, paving the way for more tests and studies to normalize and accept mindful based meditation and research, not only for soldiers with PTSD, but numerous mental inabilities or disabilities.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Interoception</span> Sensory system that receives and integrates information from the body

Interoception is the collection of senses providing information to the organism about the internal state of the body. This can be both conscious and subconscious. It encompasses the brain's process of integrating signals relayed from the body into specific subregions—like the brainstem, thalamus, insula, somatosensory, and anterior cingulate cortex—allowing for a nuanced representation of the physiological state of the body. This is important for maintaining homeostatic conditions in the body and, potentially, facilitating self-awareness.

Meditation and pain is the study of the physiological mechanisms underlying meditation—specifically its neural components—that implicate it in the reduction of pain perception.

Social cognitive neuroscience is the scientific study of the biological processes underpinning social cognition. Specifically, it uses the tools of neuroscience to study "the mental mechanisms that create, frame, regulate, and respond to our experience of the social world". Social cognitive neuroscience uses the epistemological foundations of cognitive neuroscience, and is closely related to social neuroscience. Social cognitive neuroscience employs human neuroimaging, typically using functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI). Human brain stimulation techniques such as transcranial magnetic stimulation and transcranial direct-current stimulation are also used. In nonhuman animals, direct electrophysiological recordings and electrical stimulation of single cells and neuronal populations are utilized for investigating lower-level social cognitive processes.

Consoling touch is a pro-social behavior involving physical contact between a distressed individual and a caregiver. The physical contact, most commonly recognized in the form of a hand hold or embrace, is intended to comfort one or more of the participating individuals. Consoling touch is intended to provide consolation - to alleviate or lessen emotional or physical pain. This type of social support has been observed across species and cultures. Studies have found little difference in the applications of consoling touch, with minor differences in frequency occurrence across cultures. These findings suggest a degree of universality. It remains unclear whether the relationship between social touch and interpersonal emotional bonds reflect biologically driven or culturally normative behavior. Evidence of consoling touch in non-human primates, who embrace one another following distressing events, suggest a biological basis. Numerous studies of consoling touch in humans and animals unveil a consistent physiological response. An embrace from a friend, relative, or even stranger can trigger the release of oxytocin, dopamine, and serotonin into the bloodstream. These neurotransmitters are associated with positive mood, numerous health benefits, and longevity. Cortisol, a stress hormone, also decreases. Studies have found that the degree of intimacy and quality of relationship between consoler and the consoled mediates physiological effects. In other words, while subjects experience reduced cortisol levels while holding the hand of a stranger, they exhibit a larger effect when receiving comfort from a trusted friend, and greater still, when holding the hand of a high quality romantic partner.

References

  1. ↑ MUFSON, E; MESULAM, M; PANDYA, D (1 July 1981). "Insular interconnections with the amygdala in the rhesus monkey". Neuroscience. 6 (7): 1231–1248. doi:10.1016/0306-4522(81)90184-6. PMID   6167896. S2CID   46366616.
  2. ↑ Craig AD, Chen K, Bandy D, Reiman EM (2000). "Thermosensory activation of insular cortex". Nat. Neurosci. 3 (2): 184–90. doi:10.1038/72131. PMID   10649575. S2CID   7077496.
  3. ↑ JAKAB, A; MOLNAR, P; BOGNER, P; BERES, M; BERENYI, E (1 Oct 2011). "Connectivity-based parcellation reveals interhemispheric differences in the insula". Brain Topography. 25 (3): 264–271. doi:10.1007/s10548-011-0205-y. PMID   22002490. S2CID   12293575.
  4. 1 2 3 Johannes Sobotta. "Sobotta's Atlas and Text-book of human anatomy 1909". p. 145. Retrieved November 10, 2013.
  5. ↑ "Definition: 'Circular Sulcus Of Insula'". MediLexicon. Archived from the original on 2013-06-04. Retrieved 2012-03-30.
  6. ↑ Bauernfeind A; et al. (April 2013). "A volumetric comparison of the insular cortex and its subregions in primates". Human Evolution. 64 (4): 263–279. doi:10.1016/j.jhevol.2012.12.003. PMC   3756831 . PMID   23466178.
  7. ↑ Brain, MSN Encarta. Archived 2009-10-31.
  8. ↑ Kolb, Bryan; Whishaw, Ian Q. (2003). Fundamentals of human neuropsychology (5th ed.). [New York]: Worth. ISBN   978-0-7167-5300-1.
  9. ↑ Bushara, KO; Grafman, J; Hallett, M (1 January 2001). "Neural correlates of auditory-visual stimulus onset asynchrony detection". The Journal of Neuroscience. 21 (1): 300–4. doi:10.1523/JNEUROSCI.21-01-00300.2001. PMC   6762435 . PMID   11150347.
  10. ↑ Bushara, KO; Hanakawa, T; Immisch, I; Toma, K; Kansaku, K; Hallett, M (February 2003). "Neural correlates of cross-modal binding". Nature Neuroscience. 6 (2): 190–5. doi:10.1038/nn993. PMID   12496761. S2CID   1098979.
  11. ↑ Marieb, Elaine N.; Hoehn, Katja (2008). Anatomy & Physiology, Third Edition. Boston: Benjamin Cummings/Pearson. pp. 391–395. ISBN   978-0-8053-0094-9.
  12. ↑ Pritchard, TC; Macaluso, DA; Eslinger, PJ (August 1999). "Taste perception in patients with insular cortex lesions". Behavioral Neuroscience. 113 (4): 663–71. doi:10.1037/0735-7044.113.4.663. PMID   10495075.
  13. ↑ Verhagen, Justus V.; Kadohisa, Mikiko; Rolls, Edmund T. (September 2004). "Primate Insular/Opercular Taste Cortex: Neuronal Representations of the Viscosity, Fat Texture, Grittiness, Temperature, and Taste of Foods". Journal of Neurophysiology. 92 (3): 1685–1699. doi:10.1152/jn.00321.2004. ISSN   0022-3077. PMID   15331650.
  14. ↑ https://academic.oup.com/brain/article-abstract/103/2/337/378338 . Retrieved 2023-12-11.{{cite web}}: Missing or empty |title= (help)
  15. ↑ Bohland, Jason W.; Guenther, Frank H. (2006-08-15). "An fMRI investigation of syllable sequence production". NeuroImage. 32 (2): 821–841. doi:10.1016/j.neuroimage.2006.04.173. ISSN   1053-8119. PMID   16730195. S2CID   9909543.
  16. ↑ Afif, Afif; Minotti, Lorella; Kahane, Philippe; Hoffmann, Dominique (November 2010). "Anatomofunctional organization of the insular cortex: A study using intracerebral electrical stimulation in epileptic patients". Epilepsia. 51 (11): 2305–2315. doi: 10.1111/j.1528-1167.2010.02755.x . ISSN   0013-9580. PMID   20946128.
  17. 1 2 3 https://academic.oup.com/cercor/article/31/8/3723/6213947 . Retrieved 2023-12-11.{{cite web}}: Missing or empty |title= (help)
  18. ↑ Kato, Yutaka; Muramatsu, Taro; Kato, Motoichiro; Shintani, Masuro; Kashima, Haruo (2007-03-26). "Activation of right insular cortex during imaginary speech articulation". NeuroReport. 18 (5): 505–509. doi:10.1097/WNR.0b013e3280586862. ISSN   0959-4965. PMID   17496812. S2CID   2040545.
  19. ↑ Benedetto De Martino; Dharshan Kumaran; Ben Seymour; Raymond J. Dolan (August 2006). "Frames, Biases, and Rational Decision-Making in the Human Brain". Science. 313 (6): 684–687. Bibcode:2006Sci...313..684D. doi:10.1126/science.1128356. PMC   2631940 . PMID   16888142.
  20. ↑ Gui Xue; Zhonglin Lu; Irwin P. Levin d; Antoine Bechara (2010). "The impact of prior risk experiences on subsequent risky decision-making: The role of the insula". NeuroImage. 50 (2): 709–716. doi:10.1016/j.neuroimage.2009.12.097. PMC   2828040 . PMID   20045470.
  21. ↑ Emeran A. Mayer (August 2011). "Gut feelings: the emerging biology of gut–brain communication". Nature Reviews Neuroscience. 12 (8): 453–466. doi:10.1038/nrn3071. PMC   3845678 . PMID   21750565.
  22. ↑ Critchley HD, Wiens S, Rotshtein P, Ohman A, Dolan RJ (February 2004). "Neural systems supporting interoceptive awareness". Nat. Neurosci. 7 (2): 189–95. doi:10.1038/nn1176. hdl: 21.11116/0000-0001-A2FB-D . PMID   14730305. S2CID   13344271.
  23. 1 2 Lamb K, Gallagher K, McColl R, Mathews D, Querry R, Williamson JW (April 2007). "Exercise-induced decrease in insular cortex rCBF during postexercise hypotension". Med Sci Sports Exerc. 39 (4): 672–9. doi: 10.1249/mss.0b013e31802f04e0 . PMID   17414805.
  24. ↑ Williamson JW, McColl R, Mathews D, Mitchell JH, Raven PB, Morgan WP (April 2001). "Hypnotic manipulation of effort sense during dynamic exercise: cardiovascular responses and brain activation". J. Appl. Physiol. 90 (4): 1392–9. doi:10.1152/jappl.2001.90.4.1392. PMID   11247939. S2CID   8653997.
  25. ↑ Williamson JW, McColl R, Mathews D, Ginsburg M, Mitchell JH (September 1999). "Activation of the insular cortex is affected by the intensity of exercise". J. Appl. Physiol. 87 (3): 1213–9. CiteSeerX   10.1.1.492.2730 . doi:10.1152/jappl.1999.87.3.1213. PMID   10484598. S2CID   1078691.
  26. ↑ Baliki MN, Geha PY, Apkarian AV (February 2009). "Parsing pain perception between nociceptive representation and magnitude estimation". J. Neurophysiol. 101 (2): 875–87. doi:10.1152/jn.91100.2008. PMC   3815214 . PMID   19073802.
  27. ↑ Birklein, Frank; Rolke, Roman; Müller-Forell, Wibke (2005-11-08). "Isolated insular infarction eliminates contralateral cold, cold pain, and pinprick perception". Neurology. 65 (9): 1381. doi: 10.1212/01.wnl.0000181351.82772.b3 . ISSN   0028-3878. PMID   16275823.
  28. ↑ Ogino Y, Nemoto H, Inui K, Saito S, Kakigi R, Goto F (May 2007). "Inner experience of pain: imagination of pain while viewing images showing painful events forms subjective pain representation in human brain". Cereb. Cortex. 17 (5): 1139–46. doi: 10.1093/cercor/bhl023 . PMID   16855007.
  29. ↑ Song GH, Venkatraman V, Ho KY, Chee MW, Yeoh KG, Wilder-Smith CH (December 2006). "Cortical effects of anticipation and endogenous modulation of visceral pain assessed by functional brain MRI in irritable bowel syndrome patients and healthy controls". Pain. 126 (1–3): 79–90. doi:10.1016/j.pain.2006.06.017. PMID   16846694. S2CID   21437784.
  30. ↑ Schneider, Richard J.; Friedman, David P.; Mishkin, Mortimer (1993-09-03). "A modality-specific somatosensory area within the insula of the rhesus monkey". Brain Research. 621 (1): 116–120. doi:10.1016/0006-8993(93)90305-7. ISSN   0006-8993. PMID   8221062. S2CID   20207990.
  31. ↑ Burton, H.; Videen, T. O.; Raichle, M. E. (January 1993). "Tactile-Vibration-Activated Foci in Insular and Parietal-Opercular Cortex Studied with Positron Emission Tomography: Mapping the Second Somatosensory Area in Humans". Somatosensory & Motor Research. 10 (3): 297–308. doi:10.3109/08990229309028839. ISSN   0899-0220. PMID   8237217.
  32. ↑ Olausson H, Charron J, Marchand S, Villemure C, Strigo IA, Bushnell MC (November 2005). "Feelings of warmth correlate with neural activity in right anterior insular cortex". Neurosci. Lett. 389 (1): 1–5. doi:10.1016/j.neulet.2005.06.065. PMID   16051437. S2CID   20068852.
  33. ↑ Craig AD, Chen K, Bandy D, Reiman EM (February 2000). "Thermosensory activation of insular cortex". Nat. Neurosci. 3 (2): 184–90. doi:10.1038/72131. PMID   10649575. S2CID   7077496.
  34. ↑ Ladabaum U, Minoshima S, Hasler WL, Cross D, Chey WD, Owyang C (February 2001). "Gastric distention correlates with activation of multiple cortical and subcortical regions". Gastroenterology. 120 (2): 369–76. doi: 10.1053/gast.2001.21201 . PMID   11159877.
  35. ↑ Hamaguchi T, Kano M, Rikimaru H, et al. (June 2004). "Brain activity during distention of the descending colon in humans". Neurogastroenterol. Motil. 16 (3): 299–309. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2982.2004.00498.x. PMID   15198652. S2CID   20437580.[ dead link ]
  36. ↑ Matsuura S, Kakizaki H, Mitsui T, Shiga T, Tamaki N, Koyanagi T (November 2002). "Human brain region response to distention or cold stimulation of the bladder: a positron emission tomography study". J. Urol. 168 (5): 2035–9. doi:10.1016/s0022-5347(05)64290-5. PMID   12394703.
  37. ↑ von Leupoldt, A.; Sommer, T.; Kegat, S.; Baumann, H. J.; Klose, H.; Dahme, B.; Buchel, C. (24 January 2008). "The Unpleasantness of Perceived Dyspnea Is Processed in the Anterior Insula and Amygdala". American Journal of Respiratory and Critical Care Medicine. 177 (9): 1026–1032. doi:10.1164/rccm.200712-1821OC. PMID   18263796.[ permanent dead link ]
  38. ↑ Kikuchi M, Naito Y, Senda M, et al. (April 2009). "Cortical activation during optokinetic stimulation — an fMRI study". Acta Otolaryngol. 129 (4): 440–3. doi:10.1080/00016480802610226. PMID   19116795. S2CID   42990194.
  39. ↑ Papathanasiou ES, Papacostas SS, Charalambous M, Eracleous E, Thodi C, Pantzaris M (2006). "Vertigo and imbalance caused by a small lesion in the anterior insula". Electromyogr Clin Neurophysiol. 46 (3): 185–92. PMID   16918202.
  40. ↑ Brown S, Martinez MJ, Parsons LM (September 2004). "Passive music listening spontaneously engages limbic and paralimbic systems". NeuroReport. 15 (13): 2033–7. doi:10.1097/00001756-200409150-00008. PMID   15486477. S2CID   12308683.
  41. ↑ Sander K, Scheich H (October 2005). "Left auditory cortex and amygdala, but right insula dominance for human laughing and crying". J Cogn Neurosci. 17 (10): 1519–31. doi:10.1162/089892905774597227. PMID   16269094. S2CID   9509954.
  42. ↑ "Interview with Tania Singer | the Center for Compassion and Altruism Research and Education". Archived from the original on 2010-07-14. Retrieved 2010-07-04.
  43. ↑ Bamiou DE, Musiek FE, Luxon LM (May 2003). "The insula (Island of Reil) and its role in auditory processing. Literature review". Brain Res. Brain Res. Rev. 42 (2): 143–54. doi:10.1016/S0165-0173(03)00172-3. PMID   12738055. S2CID   22339177.
  44. ↑ Anderson TJ, Jenkins IH, Brooks DJ, Hawken MB, Frackowiak RS, Kennard C (October 1994). "Cortical control of saccades and fixation in man. A PET study". Brain. 117 (Pt 5): 1073–84. doi:10.1093/brain/117.5.1073. PMID   7953589.
  45. ↑ Fink GR, Frackowiak RS, Pietrzyk U, Passingham RE (April 1997). "Multiple nonprimary motor areas in the human cortex". J. Neurophysiol. 77 (4): 2164–74. doi:10.1152/jn.1997.77.4.2164. PMID   9114263. S2CID   15881491.
  46. ↑ Sörös P, Inamoto Y, Martin RE (August 2009). "Functional brain imaging of swallowing: an activation likelihood estimation meta-analysis". Hum Brain Mapp. 30 (8): 2426–39. doi:10.1002/hbm.20680. PMC   6871071 . PMID   19107749. S2CID   15438676.
  47. ↑ Penfield W, Faulk ME (1955). "The insula; further observations on its function". Brain. 78 (4): 445–70. doi:10.1093/brain/78.4.445. PMID   13293263.
  48. ↑ Dronkers NF (November 1996). "A new brain region for coordinating speech articulation". Nature. 384 (6605): 159–61. Bibcode:1996Natur.384..159D. doi:10.1038/384159a0. PMID   8906789. S2CID   4305696.
  49. ↑ Ackermann H, Riecker A (May 2004). "The contribution of the insula to motor aspects of speech production: a review and a hypothesis". Brain Lang. 89 (2): 320–8. doi:10.1016/S0093-934X(03)00347-X. PMID   15068914. S2CID   36867434.
  50. ↑ Nowak M, Holm S, Biering-Sørensen F, Secher NH, Friberg L (June 2005). ""Central command" and insular activation during attempted foot lifting in paraplegic humans". Hum Brain Mapp. 25 (2): 259–65. doi:10.1002/hbm.20097. PMC   6871668 . PMID   15849712.
  51. ↑ Borovsky A, Saygin AP, Bates E, Dronkers N (June 2007). "Lesion correlates of conversational speech production deficits". Neuropsychologia. 45 (11): 2525–33. doi:10.1016/j.neuropsychologia.2007.03.023. PMC   5610916 . PMID   17499317.
  52. ↑ Mutschler I, Schulze-Bonhage A, Glauche V, Demandt E, Speck O, Ball T (2007). Fitch T (ed.). "A rapid sound-action association effect in human insular cortex". PLOS ONE. 2 (2): e259. Bibcode:2007PLoSO...2..259M. doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0000259 . PMC   1800344 . PMID   17327919.
  53. ↑ Weiller C, Ramsay SC, Wise RJ, Friston KJ, Frackowiak RS (February 1993). "Individual patterns of functional reorganization in the human cerebral cortex after capsular infarction". Annals of Neurology. 33 (2): 181–9. doi:10.1002/ana.410330208. PMID   8434880. S2CID   25131597.
  54. ↑ Oppenheimer SM, Gelb A, Girvin JP, Hachinski VC (September 1992). "Cardiovascular effects of human insular cortex stimulation". Neurology. 42 (9): 1727–32. doi:10.1212/wnl.42.9.1727. PMID   1513461. S2CID   32371468.
  55. ↑ Critchley HD (December 2005). "Neural mechanisms of autonomic, affective, and cognitive integration". J. Comp. Neurol. 493 (1): 154–66. doi:10.1002/cne.20749. PMID   16254997. S2CID   32616395.
  56. ↑ Pacheco-López G, Niemi MB, Kou W, Härting M, Fandrey J, Schedlowski M (March 2005). "Neural substrates for behaviorally conditioned immunosuppression in the rat". J. Neurosci. 25 (9): 2330–7. doi:10.1523/JNEUROSCI.4230-04.2005. PMC   6726099 . PMID   15745959.
  57. ↑ Ramírez-Amaya V, Alvarez-Borda B, Ormsby CE, Martínez RD, Pérez-Montfort R, Bermúdez-Rattoni F (June 1996). "Insular cortex lesions impair the acquisition of conditioned immunosuppression". Brain Behav. Immun. 10 (2): 103–14. doi:10.1006/brbi.1996.0011. PMID   8811934. S2CID   24813018.
  58. ↑ Ramírez-Amaya V, Bermúdez-Rattoni F (March 1999). "Conditioned enhancement of antibody production is disrupted by insular cortex and amygdala but not hippocampal lesions". Brain Behav. Immun. 13 (1): 46–60. doi:10.1006/brbi.1998.0547. PMID   10371677. S2CID   20527835.
  59. ↑ Karnath HO, Baier B, Nägele T (August 2005). "Awareness of the functioning of one's own limbs mediated by the insular cortex?". J. Neurosci. 25 (31): 7134–8. doi:10.1523/JNEUROSCI.1590-05.2005. PMC   6725240 . PMID   16079395.
  60. ↑ Craig AD (January 2009). "How do you feel—now? The anterior insula and human awareness". Nature Reviews Neuroscience. 10 (1): 59–70. doi:10.1038/nrn2555. PMID   19096369. S2CID   2340032.
  61. ↑ Farrer C, Frith CD (March 2002). "Experiencing oneself vs another person as being the cause of an action: the neural correlates of the experience of agency". NeuroImage. 15 (3): 596–603. doi:10.1006/nimg.2001.1009. PMID   11848702. S2CID   768408.
  62. ↑ Tsakiris M, Hesse MD, Boy C, Haggard P, Fink GR (October 2007). "Neural signatures of body ownership: a sensory network for bodily self-consciousness". Cereb. Cortex. 17 (10): 2235–44. doi: 10.1093/cercor/bhl131 . PMID   17138596.
  63. ↑ Wicker B, Keysers C, Plailly J, Royet JP, Gallese V, Rizzolatti G (October 2003). "Both of us disgusted in My insula: the common neural basis of seeing and feeling disgust". Neuron. 40 (3): 655–64. doi: 10.1016/S0896-6273(03)00679-2 . PMID   14642287. S2CID   766157.
  64. ↑ Wright P, He G, Shapira NA, Goodman WK, Liu Y (October 2004). "Disgust and the insula: fMRI responses to pictures of mutilation and contamination". NeuroReport. 15 (15): 2347–51. doi:10.1097/00001756-200410250-00009. PMID   15640753. S2CID   6864309.
  65. ↑ Jabbi M, Bastiaansen J, Keysers C (2008). Lauwereyns J (ed.). "A common anterior insula representation of disgust observation, experience and imagination shows divergent functional connectivity pathways". PLOS ONE. 3 (8): e2939. Bibcode:2008PLoSO...3.2939J. doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0002939 . PMC   2491556 . PMID   18698355.
  66. ↑ Sanfey AG, Rilling JK, Aronson JA, Nystrom LE, Cohen JD (June 2003). "The neural basis of economic decision-making in the Ultimatum Game". Science. 300 (5626): 1755–8. Bibcode:2003Sci...300.1755S. doi:10.1126/science.1082976. PMID   12805551. S2CID   7111382.
  67. ↑ Phan KL, Wager T, Taylor SF, Liberzon I (June 2002). "Functional neuroanatomy of emotion: a meta-analysis of emotion activation studies in PET and fMRI". NeuroImage. 16 (2): 331–48. doi:10.1006/nimg.2002.1087. PMID   12030820. S2CID   7150871.
  68. ↑ Singer T (2006). "The neuronal basis and ontogeny of empathy and mind reading: review of literature and implications for future research". Neurosci Biobehav Rev. 30 (6): 855–63. doi:10.1016/j.neubiorev.2006.06.011. PMID   16904182. S2CID   15411628.
  69. ↑ Ortigue S, Grafton ST, Bianchi-Demicheli F (August 2007). "Correlation between insula activation and self-reported quality of orgasm in women". NeuroImage. 37 (2): 551–60. doi:10.1016/j.neuroimage.2007.05.026. PMID   17601749. S2CID   3377994.
  70. ↑ Quarto, Tiziana; Blasi, Giuseppe; Maddalena, Chiara; Viscanti, Giovanna; Lanciano, Tiziana; Soleti, Emanuela; Mangiulli, Ivan; Taurisano, Paolo; Fazio, Leonardo (2016-02-09). "Association between Ability Emotional Intelligence and Left Insula during Social Judgment of Facial Emotions". PLOS ONE. 11 (2): e0148621. Bibcode:2016PLoSO..1148621Q. doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0148621 . ISSN   1932-6203. PMC   4747486 . PMID   26859495.
  71. ↑ Wager, Tor (June 2002). "Functional Neuroanatomy of Emotion: A Meta-Analysis of Emotion Activation Studies in PET and fMRI". NeuroImage. 16 (2): 331–48. doi:10.1006/nimg.2002.1087. PMID   12030820. S2CID   7150871.
  72. ↑ Vilares I, Howard JD, Fernandes HL, Gottfried JA, Kording KP (2012). "Differential Representations of Prior and Likelihood Uncertainty in the Human Brain". Current Biology. 22 (18): 1641–1648. doi:10.1016/j.cub.2012.07.010. PMC   3461114 . PMID   22840519.
  73. ↑ Craig, A. D. (Bud) (2009). "How do you feel — now? The anterior insula and human awareness" (PDF). Nature Reviews Neuroscience. 10 (1): 59–70. doi:10.1038/nrn2555. PMID   19096369. S2CID   2340032. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2013-01-07.
  74. ↑ Craig, A. D. (Bud) (2002). "A new view of pain as a homeostatic emotion" (PDF). Trends in Neurosciences. 26 (6): 303–307. doi:10.1016/s0166-2236(03)00123-1. PMID   12798599. S2CID   19794544. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2010-06-22. Retrieved 2009-09-03.
  75. ↑ Lazar SW, Kerr CE, Wasserman RH, Gray JR, Greve DN, Treadway MT, McGarvey M, Quinn BT, Dusek JA, Benson H, Rauch SL, Moore CI, Fischl B (2005). "Meditation experience is associated with increased cortical thickness". NeuroReport. 16 (17): 1893–7. doi:10.1097/01.wnr.0000186598.66243.19. PMC   1361002 . PMID   16272874.
  76. ↑ Fox, Kieran C.R.; Nijeboer, Savannah; Dixon, Matthew L.; Floman, James L.; Ellamil, Melissa; Rumak, Samuel P.; Sedlmeier, Peter; Christoff, Kalina (June 2014). "Is meditation associated with altered brain structure? A systematic review and meta-analysis of morphometric neuroimaging in meditation practitioners". Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews. 43: 48–73. doi:10.1016/j.neubiorev.2014.03.016. PMID   24705269. S2CID   207090878.
  77. ↑ Hölzel, Britta K.; Ott, Ulrich; Gard, Tim; Hempel, Hannes; Weygandt, Martin; Morgen, Katrin; Vaitl, Dieter (2008). "Investigation of mindfulness meditation practitioners with voxel-based morphometry". Social Cognitive and Affective Neuroscience. 3 (1): 55–61. doi:10.1093/scan/nsm038. PMC   2569815 . PMID   19015095.
  78. ↑ Damasio, A.; Damasio, H.; Tranel, D. (2013). "Persistence of Feelings and Sentience after Bilateral Damage of the Insula". Cerebral Cortex. 23 (4): 833–846. doi:10.1093/cercor/bhs077. PMC   3657385 . PMID   22473895.
  79. ↑ Taylor KS, Seminowicz DA, Davis KD (September 2009). "Two systems of resting state connectivity between the insula and cingulate cortex". Hum Brain Mapp. 30 (9): 2731–45. doi:10.1002/hbm.20705. PMC   6871122 . PMID   19072897. S2CID   12917288.
  80. ↑ Menon, Vinod; Uddin, Lucina Q. (2010-05-29). "Saliency, switching, attention and control: a network model of insula function". Brain Structure and Function. 214 (5–6): 655–667. doi:10.1007/s00429-010-0262-0. ISSN   1863-2653. PMC   2899886 . PMID   20512370.
  81. 1 2 Eckert MA, Menon V, Walczak A, Ahlstrom J, Denslow S, Horwitz A, Dubno JR (2009). "At the heart of the ventral attention system: the right anterior insula". Hum. Brain Mapp. 30 (8): 2530–41. doi:10.1002/hbm.20688. PMC   2712290 . PMID   19072895.
  82. ↑ Billeke, Pablo; Ossandon, Tomas; Perrone-Bertolotti, Marcela; Kahane, Philippe; Bastin, Julien; Jerbi, Karim; Lachaux, Jean-Philippe; Fuentealba, Pablo (1 June 2020). "Human Anterior Insula Encodes Performance Feedback and Relays Prediction Error to the Medial Prefrontal Cortex". Cerebral Cortex. 30 (7): 4011–4025. doi:10.1093/cercor/bhaa017.
  83. 1 2 Zhang, Yang; Zhou, Wenjing; Wang, Siyu; Zhou, Qin; Wang, Haixiang; Zhang, Bingqing; Huang, Juan; Hong, Bo; Wang, Xiaoqin (2019-02-01). "The Roles of Subdivisions of Human Insula in Emotion Perception and Auditory Processing". Cerebral Cortex. 29 (2): 517–528. doi:10.1093/cercor/bhx334. ISSN   1047-3211. PMID   29342237. S2CID   36927038.
  84. ↑ Nieuwenhuys, Rudolf (2012-01-01), Hofman, Michel A.; Falk, Dean (eds.), "Chapter 7 - The insular cortex: A review", Progress in Brain Research, Evolution of the Primate Brain, vol. 195, Elsevier, pp. 123–163, doi:10.1016/B978-0-444-53860-4.00007-6, ISBN   978-0-444-53860-4, PMID   22230626 , retrieved 2023-12-11
  85. ↑ Bamiou, Doris-Eva; Musiek, Frank E; Luxon, Linda M (2003-05-01). "The insula (Island of Reil) and its role in auditory processing: Literature review". Brain Research Reviews. 42 (2): 143–154. doi:10.1016/S0165-0173(03)00172-3. ISSN   0165-0173. PMID   12738055. S2CID   22339177.
  86. ↑ Blenkmann, Alejandro O.; Collavini, Santiago; Lubell, James; Llorens, Anaïs; Funderud, Ingrid; Ivanovic, Jugoslav; Larsson, Pål G.; Meling, Torstein R.; Bekinschtein, Tristan; Kochen, Silvia; Endestad, Tor (December 2019). "Auditory deviance detection in the human insula: An intracranial EEG study". Cortex. 121: 189–200. doi:10.1016/j.cortex.2019.09.002. hdl: 10852/75077 . PMID   31629197. S2CID   202749677.
  87. ↑ Afif, Afif; Minotti, Lorella; Kahane, Philippe; Hoffmann, Dominique (November 2010). "Anatomofunctional organization of the insular cortex: A study using intracerebral electrical stimulation in epileptic patients: Functional Organization of the Insula". Epilepsia. 51 (11): 2305–2315. doi: 10.1111/j.1528-1167.2010.02755.x . PMID   20946128. S2CID   2506125.
  88. ↑ Nestor PJ, Graham NL, Fryer TD, Williams GB, Patterson K, Hodges JR (November 2003). "Progressive non-fluent aphasia is associated with hypometabolism centred on the left anterior insula". Brain. 126 (Pt 11): 2406–18. doi: 10.1093/brain/awg240 . PMID   12902311.
  89. ↑ Gorno-Tempini ML, Dronkers NF, Rankin KP, et al. (March 2004). "Cognition and anatomy in three variants of primary progressive aphasia". Annals of Neurology. 55 (3): 335–46. doi:10.1002/ana.10825. PMC   2362399 . PMID   14991811.
  90. ↑ Nasir H. Naqvi; David Rudrauf; Hanna Damasio; Antoine Bechara. (January 2007). "Damage to the Insula Disrupts Addiction to Cigarette Smoking". Science . 315 (5811): 531–4. Bibcode:2007Sci...315..531N. doi:10.1126/science.1135926. PMC   3698854 . PMID   17255515.
  91. ↑ Vorel SR, Bisaga A, McKhann G, Kleber HD (July 2007). "Insula damage and quitting smoking". Science. 317 (5836): 318–9, author reply 318–9. doi:10.1126/science.317.5836.318c. PMID   17641181. S2CID   8917168.
  92. ↑ Suner-Soler, R. (2011). "Smoking Cessation 1 Year Poststroke and Damage to the Insular Cortex". Stroke. 43 (1): 131–136. doi: 10.1161/STROKEAHA.111.630004 . PMID   22052507.
  93. ↑ Gaznick, N. (2013). "Basal Ganglia Plus Insula Damage Yields Stronger Disruption of Smoking Addiction Than Basal Ganglia Damage Alone". Nicotine. 16 (4): 445–453. doi:10.1093/ntr/ntt172. PMC   3954424 . PMID   24169814.
  94. ↑ Hyman, Steven E. (2005-08-01). "Addiction: A Disease of Learning and Memory". Am J Psychiatry. 162 (8): 1414–22. doi:10.1176/appi.ajp.162.8.1414. PMID   16055762.
  95. ↑ Marco Contreras; Francisco Ceric; Fernando Torrealba (January 2007). "Inactivation of the Interoceptive Insula Disrupts Drug Craving and Malaise Induced by Lithium". Science . 318 (5850): 655–8. Bibcode:2007Sci...318..655C. doi:10.1126/science.1145590. hdl: 10533/135157 . PMID   17962567. S2CID   23499558.
  96. ↑ Picard, Fabienne (2013), "State of belief, subjective certainty and bliss as a product of cortical dysfuntion", Cortex, 49 (9): 2494–2500, doi:10.1016/j.cortex.2013.01.006, PMID   23415878, S2CID   206984751
  97. ↑ Gschwind, Markus; Picard, Fabienne (2016), "Ecstatic Epileptic Seizures: a glimpse into the multiple roles of the insula", Frontiers in Behavioral Neuroscience, 10: 21, doi: 10.3389/fnbeh.2016.00021 , PMC   4756129 , PMID   26924970
  98. ↑ Picard 2013, p.2496-2498
  99. ↑ Picard 2013, p.2497-2498
  100. ↑ See also satori in Japanese Zen
  101. 1 2 Picard 2013, p.2498
  102. ↑ Paulus MP, Stein MB (August 2006). "An insular view of anxiety". Biol. Psychiatry. 60 (4): 383–7. doi:10.1016/j.biopsych.2006.03.042. PMID   16780813. S2CID   17889111.
  103. ↑ Thayer JF, Lane RD (December 2000). "A model of neurovisceral integration in emotion regulation and dysregulation". J Affect Disord. 61 (3): 201–16. doi:10.1016/S0165-0327(00)00338-4. PMID   11163422.
  104. ↑ Gaudio S, Wiemerslage L, Brooks SJ, Schiöth HB (2016). "A systematic review of resting-state functional-MRI studies in anorexia nervosa: Evidence for functional connectivity impairment in cognitive control and visuospatial and body-signal integration" (PDF). Neurosci Biobehav Rev. 71: 578–589. doi: 10.1016/j.neubiorev.2016.09.032 . PMID   27725172. S2CID   16526824.
  105. 1 2 Binder DK, Schaller K, Clusmann H (November 2007). "The seminal contributions of Johann-Christian Reil to anatomy, physiology, and psychiatry". Neurosurgery. 61 (5): 1091–6, discussion 1096. doi:10.1227/01.neu.0000303205.15489.23. PMID   18091285. S2CID   8152708.
This page is based on this Wikipedia article
Text is available under the CC BY-SA 4.0 license; additional terms may apply.
Images, videos and audio are available under their respective licenses.