Childhood trauma

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Childhood trauma is often described as serious adverse childhood experiences. [1] Children may go through a range of experiences that classify as psychological trauma; these might include neglect, [2] abandonment, [2] sexual abuse, emotional abuse, and physical abuse. [2] They may also witness abuse of a sibling or parent, or have a mentally ill parent. These events can have profound psychological, physiological, and sociological impacts leading to lasting negative effects on health and well-being. These events may include antisocial behaviors, attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), and sleep disturbances. [3] Additionally, children whose mothers have experienced traumatic or stressful events during pregnancy have an increased risk of mental health disorders and other neurodevelopmental disorders. [3]

Contents

Kaiser Permanente and the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention's 1998 study on adverse childhood experiences found that traumatic experiences during childhood are a root cause of many social, emotional, and cognitive impairments. These impairments can lead to increased risk of unhealthy self-destructive behaviors, [2] risk of violence or re-victimization, chronic health conditions, low life potential and premature mortality. As the number of adverse experiences increases, the risk of problems from childhood through adulthood also rises. [4] Nearly 30 years of research following the initial study has confirmed these findings. Many states, health providers, and other groups now routinely screen parents and children for adverse childhood experiences.

Health

Lasting effects of Adverse Childhood Experiences Lasting affects of Adverse Childhood Experiences.png
Lasting effects of Adverse Childhood Experiences

Childhood traumatic experiences leads to stress that increases an individual's allostatic load, negatively affecting the immune system, nervous system, and endocrine system. [5] [6] [7] [8] Exposure to chronic stress can triple or quadruple the risk to adverse medical outcomes. [9] Childhood trauma is often linked to various health issues including depression, hypertension, autoimmune diseases, lung cancer, and premature mortality. [5] [7] [10] [11]

The effects of childhood trauma on brain development can hinder emotional regulation and impair of social skill [7] development. Research indicates that children raised in traumatic or risky family environments often display excessive internalizing (e.g., social withdrawal, anxiety) or externalizing (e.g., aggressive behavior), and suicidal behavior. [7] [12] [13] Recent research has found that physical and sexual abuse are associated with mood and anxiety disorders in adulthood, while emotion abuse is linked to personality disorders and schizophrenia [14] [15] later in life. Recent research suggests that mental health outcomes from childhood trauma may be better understood through a dimensional framework (internalizing and externalizing) as opposed to specific disorders. [16]

Psychological impact

Neglect, abandonment, sexual abuse, emotional abuse, and physical abuse are all forms of psychological trauma that can have long-lasting effects on a child's mental health. These types of abuse disrupt a child's sense of safety and trust, which can lead to various mental disorders including post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD), attachment issues, depression, and substance abuse. Sensitive and critical stages of child development can result in altered neurological functioning, adaptive to a malevolent environment but difficult for more benign environments.

Trauma experienced in childhood may also increase vulnerability to developing severe mental health conditions, such as psychosis, as the individual may have a compromised ability to regulate their emotions. In a study done by Stefania Tognin and Maria Calem comparing healthy comparisons (HC) and individuals at clinically high risk for developing psychosis (CHR), 65.6% CHR patients and 23.1% HC experienced some level of childhood trauma. The conclusion of the study shows that there is a correlation between the effects of childhood trauma and the being at high risk for psychosis. [17]

Effects on adults

As an adult, feelings of anxiety, worry, shame, guilt, helplessness, hopelessness, grief, sadness, and anger that started with a trauma in childhood can persist. In addition, those who experience trauma as a child are more likely to face mental health challenges such as anxiety, depression, suicide and self harm, PTSD, substance misuse, and relationship difficulties. [18] The effects of childhood trauma are not limited to emotional consequences. Survivors of childhood trauma are also at higher risk of developing asthma, coronary heart disease, diabetes, or strokes [19] [20] . They are also more likely to develop a "heightened stress response" which can make it difficult for them to regulate their emotions, lead to sleep difficulties, lower immune function, and increase the risk of a number of physical illnesses throughout adulthood. [18]

Epigenetics

Childhood trauma [8] can leave epigenetic marks on a child's genes, which chemically modify gene expression by silencing or activating genes, or DNA methylation. [21] [22] This can alter fundamental biological processes and adversely affect health outcomes throughout life. [22] A 2013 study found that people who had experienced childhood trauma had different neuropathology than people with PTSD from trauma experienced after childhood. [22] Another recent study in rhesus macaques showed that DNA methylation changes related to early-life adversity persisted into adulthood. [23] This research has centered primarily around methylation associated with the NR3C1 gene, however research into the epigenetic impact of trauma has extended to other genes, including KITLG. [24]

Survivors of war trauma or childhood maltreatment are at increased risk for trauma-spectrum disorders [25] such as PTSD. In addition, traumatic stress has been associated with alterations in the neuroendocrine and the immune system, enhancing the risk for physical diseases. [26] In particular, epigenetic alterations in genes regulating the hypothalamus–pituitary–adrenal axis as well as the immune system have been observed in survivors of childhood and adult trauma. [27] [28]

Traumatic experiences might even affect psychological as well as biological parameters in the next generation, i.e. traumatic stress might have transgenerational effects. [29] [25] Parental trauma exposure was found to be associated with greater risk for post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) and mood and anxiety disorders in offspring since biological alterations associated with PTSD and/or other stress-related disorders have also been observed in offspring of trauma survivors who do not themselves report trauma exposure or psychiatric disorder. [30] Animal models have demonstrated that stress exposure can result in epigenetic alterations in the next generation, and such mechanisms have been hypothesized to underpin vulnerability to symptoms in offspring of trauma survivors. [31] Enduring behavioral responses to stress and epigenetic alterations in adult offspring have been demonstrated to be mediated by changes in gametes in utero effects, variations in early postnatal care, and/or other early life experiences that are influenced by parental exposure. [32]

These changes could result in enduring alterations of the stress response as well as the physical health risk. [25] Furthermore, the effects of parental trauma could be transmitted to the next generation by parental distress and the pre and postnatal environment as well as by epigenetic marks transmitted via the germline. [30] While epigenetic research has a high potential of advancing our understanding of the consequences of trauma, the findings have to be interpreted with caution, as epigenetics only represent one piece of a complex puzzle of interacting biological and environmental factors. [25]

Transgenerational effects

People can pass their epigenetic marks including de-myelinated neurons to their children. The effects of trauma can be transferred from one generation of childhood trauma survivors to subsequent generations of offspring. This is known as transgenerational trauma or intergenerational trauma, and can manifest in parenting behaviors as well as epigenetically. [33] [34] [35] Exposure to childhood trauma, along with environmental stress, can also cause alterations in genes and gene expressions. [36] [37] [38] A growing body of literature suggests that children's experiences of trauma and abuse within close relationships not only jeopardize their well-being in childhood, but can also have long-lasting consequences that extend well into adulthood. [39] These long-lasting consequences can include emotion regulation issues, which can then be passed onto subsequent generations through child-parent interactions and learned behaviors. [40] (see also behavioral epigenetics, historical trauma, and cycle of violence)

Socioeconomic costs

The social and economic costs of child abuse and neglect are difficult to calculate. Some costs are straightforward and directly related to maltreatment, such as hospital costs for medical treatment of injuries sustained due to physical abuse and foster care costs resulting from the removal of children when they are not safe with their families. Other costs, which are less directly tied to the incidence of abuse, include lower academic achievement, adult criminality, and lifelong mental health problems. Both direct and indirect costs impact society and the economy. [41] [42] For example, children who experience maltreatment are more likely to perform poorly in school, which can limit their future economic opportunities and increase likelihood of unemployment.

The long-term psychological effects of abuse, such as depression, PTSD, and substance abuse can lead to increased healthcare costs and higher mortality rates. A study by the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) estimated that the lifetime cost of child maltreatment in the United States is over $124 billion annually, taking into account both direct costs , which include healthcare and child welfare services, and indirect costs, which include lost productivity, criminal justice expenses, and special education services [43] . Both direct and indirect costs significantly impact society and the economy.

Resilience

Exposure to maltreatment in childhood significantly predicts a variety of negative outcomes in adulthood. [44] However, not all children who are exposed to a potentially traumatic event develop subsequent struggles with mental or physical health. [45] Therefore, there are factors that reduce the impact of potentially traumatic events and protect an individual from developing mental health problems after exposure to a potentially traumatic event. These are called resiliency factors.

Research regarding children who showed adaptive development while facing adversity began in the 1970s and continues to this day. [46] Resilience is defined as “the process of, capacity for, or outcome of successful adaptation despite challenging or threatening circumstances." [47] The concept of resilience stems from research that showed experiencing positive emotions had a restorative and preventive effect on the experience of negative emotions more broadly with regards to physical and psychological wellbeing in general and more specifically with reactions to trauma. [48] [49] This line of research has contributed to the development of interventions that focus on promoting resilience as opposed to focusing on deficits in an individual who has experienced a traumatic event. [46] Resilience has been found to decrease risk of suicide, depression, anxiety and other mental health struggles associated with exposure to trauma in childhood. [50] [51] [52] [53]

When an individual who is high in resilience experiences a potentially traumatic event, their relative level of functioning does not significantly deviate from the level of functioning they exhibited prior to exposure to a potentially traumatic event. [47] Furthermore, that same individual may recover more quickly and successfully from a potentially traumatic experience than an individual who could be said to be less resilient. [47] In children, level of functioning is operationalized as the child continuing to behave in a manner that is considered developmentally appropriate for a child of that age. [46] Level of functioning is also measured by the presence of mental health disorders such as depression, anxiety, posttraumatic stress disorder, and so on. [45]

Factors that affect resilience

Factors that affect resilience include cultural factors like socioeconomic status, such that having more resources at one's disposal usually equates to more resilience to trauma. [46] Furthermore, the severity and duration of the potentially traumatic experience affect the likelihood of experiencing negative outcomes as a result of childhood trauma. [45] [51] One factor that does not affect resilience is gender, with both males and females being equally sensitive to risk and protective factors. [45] Cognitive ability is also not a predictor of resilience. [45]

Attachment has been shown to be one of the most important factors to consider when it comes to evaluating the relative resilience of an individual. [45] Children with secure attachments to an adult with effective coping strategies were most likely to endure adverse childhood experiences in an adaptive manner. [46] Secure attachments throughout the lifespan (including in adolescence and adulthood) appear to be equally important in fostering and maintaining resilience. [45] Secure attachment to one's peers throughout adolescence is a particularly strong predictor of resilience. [45] Within the context of abuse, it is thought that these secure attachments decrease the extent to which children who are abused perceive others as being untrustworthy. [45] In other words, while some children who are abused might begin to view other people as being unsafe and unable to be trusted, children who are able to develop and maintain healthy relationships are less likely to hold these views. Children who experience trauma but also experience healthy attachment with multiple groups of people (in essence, adults, peers, romantic partners, etc.) throughout childhood, adolescence, and adulthood are particularly resilient. [45]

Personality also affects the development (or lack of development) of adult psychopathology as a result of childhood abuse. [45] Individuals who scored low in neuroticism exhibit fewer negative outcomes, such as psychopathology, criminal activity, and poor physical health, after exposure to a potentially traumatic event. [45] Furthermore, individuals with higher scores on openness to experience, conscientiousness, and extraversion have been found to be more resilient to the effects of childhood trauma. [54] [55]

Enhancing resilience

One of the most common misconceptions about resilience is that individuals who show resilience are somehow special or extraordinary in some way. [46] Successful adaptation, or resilience, is quite common among children. [46] This is due in part to the naturally adaptive nature of childhood development. Therefore, resilience is enhanced by protecting against factors that might undermine a child's inborn resilience. [46] Studies suggest that resiliency can be enhanced by providing children who have been exposed to trauma with environments in which they feel safe and are able to securely attach to a healthy adult. [56] Therefore, interventions that promote strong parent-child bonds are particularly effective at buffering against the potential negative effects of trauma. [56]

Furthermore, researchers of resilience argue that successful adaptation is not merely a result, rather a developmental process that is ongoing throughout a person's lifetime. [56] Thus, successful promotion of resilience must also be ongoing throughout a person's lifespan.

Prognosis

Trauma affects all children differently (see stress in early childhood). Some children who experience trauma develop significant and long-lasting problems, while others may have minimal symptoms and recover more quickly. [57] Studies have found that despite the broad impacts of trauma, children can and do recover with appropriate interventions. Trauma-informed care tailors to the unique needs of those with trauma and produce better outcomes than standard treatments [58] . Early and sustained support can significantly improve long-term emotional and psychological well-being for children affected by trauma [59] .

Types of trauma

Emotional abuse

Emotional abuse is often an understated form of trauma that can occur both overtly and covertly. Emotional abuse revolves around a pattern of emotional manipulation, abusive words, isolation, discretization, humiliation and more that tends to have an internalized effect on an individual's self-esteem, ideals, values and reality. [60] Emotional abuse in children is a distinct issue in relation to childhood trauma and the effects it has on children when growing up in an emotionally abusive household or being in relation with emotionally abusive individuals. [61]

Bullying

Bullying is any unprovoked action with the intention of harming, either physically or psychologically, someone who is considered to have less power, either physically or socially. Bullying is a form of harassment that is often repeated and habitual, and can happen in person or online. [62]

Bullying in childhood may inflict harm or distress and educational harm that can affect the later stage of adolescence. [63] Bullying involvement, as victim, bully, bully/victim, or witness, can threaten the well-being of children. Bullying can be a risk factor for the development of an eating disorder, it can impact the functioning of the HPA axis, and it can impact functioning in adulthood. It increases the risk for physical problems such as inflammation, diabetes, and heart risk, and mental health problems such as anxiety, depression, agoraphobia, panic disorder, substance abuse, and PTSD. [64]

Community violence

Unlike bullying which is direct, trauma from community violence is not always directly perpetuated on the child, but is instead the result of being exposed to violent acts and behaviors in the community, such as gang violence, school shootings, riots, or police brutality. [65] Community violence exposure whether direct, or indirect, is associated with many negative mental health outcomes among children and adolescents including internalizing trauma-related symptoms, [66] academic problems, [67] substance abuse, [68] and suicidal ideation. [69]

Evidence also indicates that violence tends to beget more violence; children who witness community violence consistently show higher levels of aggression across developmental periods including early [66] and middle childhood, [70] [71] as well as adolescence. [72]

Complex trauma

Complex trauma occurs from exposure to multiple and repetitive episodes of victimization or other traumatic events. Individuals who are exposed to multiple forms of trauma often display a wide range of difficulties compared to those who have only had one of few trauma exposures. For example, cognitive complications (dissociation), affective, somatic, behavioral, relational, and self-attributional problems have been seen in individuals who have experienced complex trauma. [73]

Disasters

Beyond the experience of natural and man-made disasters themselves, disaster-related traumas include the loss of loved ones, disruptions caused by disaster-caused homelessness and hardship and the breakdown of community structures. [74] Exposure to a natural disaster is a highly stressful experiences that can lead to a wide range of maladaptive outcomes, particularly in children. [75] Exposure to natural disaster constitutes a risk factor for poor psychological health in children and adolescents. Psychological symptoms tend to decline over time after the exposure, it is not a rapid process. [76]

Intimate partner violence

Similar to community violence, intimate partner violence-related trauma is not necessarily directly perpetuated on child, but can be the result of exposure to violence within the household, often of violence perpetuated against one or more caregivers or family members. It is often accompanied by direct physical and emotional abuse of the child. [77] Witnessing violence and threats against a caregiver during early years of life is associated with severe impacts on a child's health and development.

Outcomes for children include psychological distress, behavioral disorders, disturbances in self-regulation, difficulties with social interaction, and disorganized attachment. [78] Children who were exposed to interpersonal violence were more likely to develop long term mental health problems than those with non-interpersonal traumas. [79] The impact of seeing intimate partner violence could be more serious for younger children. Younger children are completely dependent on their caregivers than older children not only for physical care but also emotional care. This is needed for them to develop normal neurological, psychological, and social development. This dependence can contribute to their vulnerability to witnessing violence against their caregivers.

Medical trauma

Medical trauma, sometimes called 'paediatric medical traumatic stress' refers to a set of psychological and physiological responses of children and their families to pain, injury, serious illness, medical procedures, and invasive or frightening treatment experiences. Medical trauma may occur as a response to a single or multiple medical events. [80] In children, they are still developing cognitive skills and because of this they process information differently. They might associate pain with punishment and could believe they did something wrong that led to them being in pain or that they somehow caused their injury. [81]

Children may experience disruptions in their attachment with their caregivers due to their traumatic medical experience. This depends on the age of the child and his understanding of his medical difficulties. For example, a young child may feel betrayed by his parents if they have forced him to participate in activities that contributed to the child's pain, such as administering medications or taking him to the doctor. At the same time, the parent-child relationship is strained due to parents feeling powerless, guilt, or inadequacy. [81]

Physical abuse

Child physical abuse is physical trauma or physical injury caused by slapping, beating, hitting, or otherwise harming a child. [82] This abuse is considered non-accidental. Injuries can range from mild bruising to broken bones, skull fractures, and even death. [83] Short term consequences of physical abuse of children include fractures, [84] cognitive or intellectual disabilities, social skills deficits, PTSD, other psychiatric disorders, [83] heightened aggression, and externalizing behaviors, [85] anxiety, risk-taking behavior, and suicidal behavior. [86] Long-term consequences include difficulty trusting others, low self-esteem, anxiety, physical problems, anger, internalization of aggression, depression, interpersonal difficulties, and substance abuse.

Refugee trauma

Refugee-related childhood trauma can take place in the child's country of origin due to war, persecution, or violence, but can also be a result of the process of displacement or even the disruptions and transitions of resettlement into the destination country. [87] Studies of refugee youth report high levels of exposure to war related trauma and have found profound averse consequences of these experiences for children's mental health. Some outcomes from experiencing trauma in refugee children are behavioral problems, mood and anxiety disorders, PTSD, and adjustment difficulty. [88]

Separation trauma

Separation trauma [89] is a disruption in an attachment relationship that disrupts neurological development and can lead to death. [90] [91] Chronic separation from a caregiver can be extremely traumatic to a child. [92] [93] Additionally, separation from a parental or attachment figure while enduring a separate childhood trauma can also produce withstanding impact on the child's attachment security. [94] This may later be associated with the development of post-traumatic adult symptomology. [94]

Sexual abuse

Traumatic grief

Traumatic grief is distinguished from the traditional grieving process in that the child is unable to cope with daily life and may not even remember a loved one outside of the circumstances of his death. This can often be the case when the death is the result of a sudden illness or an act of violence. [95]

Treatment

The health effects of childhood trauma can be mitigated through care and treatment. [96] [97] [98]

There are many treatments for childhood trauma, including psychosocial treatments and pharmacologic treatments. [96] [97] [98] Psychosocial treatments can be targeted toward individuals, such as psychotherapy, or targeted towards wider populations, such as school-wide interventions. [96] [99] While studies (systematic reviews) of current evidence have shown that many types [100] of treatments are effective, trauma-focused cognitive behavioral therapy [101] may be the most effective for treating childhood trauma. [98] [102]

In contrast, other studies have shown that pharmacologic therapies may be less effective than psychosocial therapies for treating childhood trauma. [96] [98] Lastly, early intervention can significantly reduce negative health effects of childhood trauma. [103] [104]

Psychosocial treatments

Cognitive behavioral therapy

Cognitive behavioral therapy (CBT) is the psychological treatment of choice for PTSD and is recommended by best-practice treatment guidelines. [102] The goal of CBT is to help patients change their thoughts, beliefs, and attitudes to better control their emotions. [105] Additionally, it is structured to help patients better cope with trauma and improve their problem-solving skills. [105] Many studies provide evidence that CBT is effective for treating PTSD in terms of magnitude of symptom reduction from pre-treatment levels, and diagnostic recovery. [96] [98] [106] Associated treatment barriers include stigma, cost, geography and insufficient treatment availability. [107]

Trauma-focused cognitive behavioral therapy

Trauma focused cognitive behavioral therapy (TF-CBT) is a branch of cognitive behavioral therapy designed to treat PTSD cases in children and adolescents. [108] This treatment model combines the principles of CBT with trauma-sensitive approaches. [109] It helps introduce skills to cope with the symptoms of the trauma for both the child and the parent if available, before allowing the child to process the trauma on their own in a safe space. [110] Studies (systematic reviews) have shown trauma-focused cognitive behavioral therapy to be one of the most effective treatments to minimize the negative psychological effects of childhood trauma, particularly PTSD. [96] [98] [102] [111]

Eye movement desensitization and reprocessing therapy

Eye movement desensitization and reprocessing therapy (EMDR) is a technique used by therapists to help process traumatic memories. [112] The intervention has the patient recall traumatic memories and use bilateral stimulation such as eye movements or finger tapping to help regulate their emotions. [112] The process is complete when the patient becomes desensitized to the memory and can recall it without having a negative response. [112] A randomized controlled trial showed that EMDR reduced symptoms of PTSD in children who had been exposed to a single-traumatic event, and was cost-effective. [113] Additionally, studies have shown EMDR to be an effective treatment for PTSD. [111]

Dialectical behavior therapy

Dialectical behavior therapy (DBT) has been shown to be help prevent self-harm and enhance interpersonal functioning by reducing experiential avoidance and expressed anger through a combination of cognitive behavioral and mindfulness techniques. [114]

Real life heroes

The real life heroes (RLH) treatment, a sequential, attachment-centered treatment intervention for children with Complex PTSD that focuses on 3 primary components: affect regulation, emotionally supportive relationships, and life story integration to build resources and skills for resilience. [115] A study of 126 children found Real Life Heroes treatment to be effective in reducing symptoms of PTSD and in improving behavioral problems. [116]

Narrative-emotion process coding system

The narrative-emotion process coding system (NEPCS) is a behavioral coding system that identifies eight client markers: Abstract Story, Empty Story, Unstoried Emotion, Inchoate Story, Same Old Story, Competing Plotlines Story, Unexpected Outcome Story, and Discovery Story. Each marker varies in the degree to which specific narrative and emotion process indicators are represented in one-minute time segments drawn from videotaped therapy sessions. As enhanced integration of narrative and emotional expression has previously been associated with recovery from complex trauma. [117]

Attachment, Self-Regulation, and Competency framework

The Attachment, Self-Regulation, and Competency (ARC) Framework is an intervention for children and adolescents impacted by complex trauma. [118] The ARC framework is a flexible, component-based intervention for treating children and adolescents who have experienced complex trauma. [118] The framework is theoretically grounded in attachment, trauma, and developmental theories and specifically addresses three core domains impacted by exposure to chronic, interpersonal trauma: attachment, self-regulation, and developmental competencies. [118] A study using data from the US National Child Traumatic Stress Network found that treatment with the ARC framework was effective, reducing behavioral problems and symptoms of PTSD to a similar degree that of trauma-focused cognitive behavioral therapy. [108]

School-wide approaches

Many school-wide interventions that have been studied differ considerably from one another, which limits the strength of the evidence in support of school-wide interventions for treating childhood trauma; however, studies of school-wide approaches show that they tended to be moderately effective, reducing trauma symptoms, encouraging behavior change, and improving self-esteem. [99]

Pharmaceutical treatments

Most studies that evaluate the effectiveness of using pharmaceuticals (medications) for treatment of childhood trauma focus specifically on treating PTSD. [96] [98] PTSD is only one health effect that can result from childhood trauma. [119] Few studies evaluate the effectiveness of pharmaceutical treatment for treating other health effects of childhood trauma, besides PTSD.

Selective serotonin re-uptake inhibitors (SSRI) and other anti-depressants are medications that are commonly used to treat the symptoms of PTSD. [120] Studies (systematic reviews) have shown that medications may be less effective than psychosocial therapies for treating PTSD. [96] [98] However, medications have been shown to be effective when paired with another form of therapy such as CBT for PTSD. [121]

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Post-traumatic stress disorder</span> Mental disorder associated with trauma

Post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) is a mental and behavioral disorder that develops from experiencing a traumatic event, such as sexual assault, warfare, traffic collisions, child abuse, domestic violence, or other threats on a person's life or well-being. Symptoms may include disturbing thoughts, feelings, or dreams related to the events, mental or physical distress to trauma-related cues, attempts to avoid trauma-related cues, alterations in the way a person thinks and feels, and an increase in the fight-or-flight response. These symptoms last for more than a month after the event and can include triggers such as misophonia. Young children are less likely to show distress, but instead may express their memories through play. A person with PTSD is at a higher risk of suicide and intentional self-harm.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Physical abuse</span> Medical condition

Physical abuse is any intentional act causing injury or trauma to another person or animal by way of bodily contact. In most cases, children are the victims of physical abuse, but adults can also be victims, as in cases of domestic violence or workplace aggression. Alternative terms sometimes used include physical assault or physical violence, and may also include sexual abuse. Physical abuse may involve more than one abuser, and more than one victim.

Psychological trauma is an emotional response caused by severe distressing events that are outside the normal range of human experiences. It must be understood by the affected person as directly threatening the affected person or their loved ones generally with death, severe bodily injury, or sexual violence; indirect exposure, such as from watching television news, may be extremely distressing and can produce an involuntary and possibly overwhelming physiological stress response, but does not produce trauma per se. Examples of distressing events include violence, rape, or a terrorist attack.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Complex post-traumatic stress disorder</span> Psychological disorder

Complex post-traumatic stress disorder is a stress-related mental disorder generally occurring in response to complex traumas, i.e., commonly prolonged or repetitive exposures to a series of traumatic events, within which individuals perceive little or no chance to escape.

Sex is correlated with the prevalence of certain mental disorders, including depression, anxiety and somatic complaints. For example, women are more likely to be diagnosed with major depression, while men are more likely to be diagnosed with substance abuse and antisocial personality disorder. There are no marked gender differences in the diagnosis rates of disorders like schizophrenia and bipolar disorder. Men are at risk to suffer from post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) due to past violent experiences such as accidents, wars and witnessing death, and women are diagnosed with PTSD at higher rates due to experiences with sexual assault, rape and child sexual abuse. Nonbinary or genderqueer identification describes people who do not identify as either male or female. People who identify as nonbinary or gender queer show increased risk for depression, anxiety and post-traumatic stress disorder. People who identify as transgender demonstrate increased risk for depression, anxiety, and post-traumatic stress disorder.

Prolonged exposure therapy (PE) is a form of behavior therapy and cognitive behavioral therapy designed to treat post-traumatic stress disorder. It is characterized by two main treatment procedures – imaginal and in vivo exposures. Imaginal exposure is repeated 'on-purpose' retelling of the trauma memory. In vivo exposure is gradually confronting situations, places, and things that are reminders of the trauma or feel dangerous. Additional procedures include processing of the trauma memory and breathing retraining.

Memory and trauma is the deleterious effects that physical or psychological trauma has on memory.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Daniel Schechter</span> American neuroscientist

Daniel S. Schechter is an American and Swiss psychiatrist known for his clinical work and research on intergenerational transmission or "communication" of violent trauma and related psychopathology involving parents and very young children. His published work in this area following the terrorist attacks on the World Trade Center in New York of September 11, 2001 led to a co-edited book entitled "September 11: Trauma and Human Bonds" (2003) and additional original articles with clinical psychologist Susan Coates that were translated into multiple languages and remain among the first accounts of 9/11 related loss and trauma described by mental health professionals who also experienced the attacks and their aftermath Schechter observed that separation anxiety among infants and young children who had either lost or feared loss of their caregivers triggered posttraumatic stress symptoms in the surviving caregivers. These observations validated his prior work on the adverse impact of family violence on the early parent-child relationship, formative social-emotional development and related attachment disturbances involving mutual dysregulation of emotion and arousal. This body of work on trauma and attachment has been cited by prominent authors in the attachment theory, psychological trauma, developmental psychobiology and neuroscience literatures

PTSD or post-traumatic stress disorder, is a psychiatric disorder characterised by intrusive thoughts and memories, dreams or flashbacks of the event; avoidance of people, places and activities that remind the individual of the event; ongoing negative beliefs about oneself or the world, mood changes and persistent feelings of anger, guilt or fear; alterations in arousal such as increased irritability, angry outbursts, being hypervigilant, or having difficulty with concentration and sleep.

Transgenerational trauma is the psychological and physiological effects that the trauma experienced by people has on subsequent generations in that group. The primary mode of transmission is the shared family environment of the infant causing psychological, behavioral and social changes in the individual.

Trauma focused cognitive behavioral therapy (TF-CBT) is an evidence-based psychotherapy or counselling that aims at addressing the needs of children and adolescents with post traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) and other difficulties related to traumatic life events. This treatment was developed and proposed by Drs. Anthony Mannarino, Judith Cohen, and Esther Deblinger in 2006. The goal of TF-CBT is to provide psychoeducation to both the child and non-offending caregivers, then help them identify, cope, and re-regulate maladaptive emotions, thoughts, and behaviors. Research has shown TF-CBT to be effective in treating childhood PTSD and with children who have experienced or witnessed traumatic events, including but not limited to physical or sexual victimization, child maltreatment, domestic violence, community violence, accidents, natural disasters, and war. More recently, TF-CBT has been applied to and found effective in treating complex posttraumatic stress disorder.

Early childhood trauma refers to various types of adversity and traumatic events experienced during the early years of a person's life. This is deemed the most critical developmental period in human life by psychologists. A critical period refers to a sensitive time during the early years of childhood in which children may be more vulnerable to be affected by environmental stimulation. These traumatic events can include serious illness, natural disasters, family violence, sudden separation from a family member, being the victim of abuse, or suffering the loss of a loved one. Traumatic experiences in early childhood can result in severe consequences throughout adulthood, for instance developing post-traumatic stress disorder, depression, or anxiety. The effects of this trauma can be experienced very differently depending on factors such as how long the trauma was, how severe and even the age of the child when it occurred. Negative childhood experiences can have a tremendous impact on future violence victimization and perpetration, and lifelong health and opportunity. However, not all children who are exposed to negative stimuli in early childhood will be affected severely in later life; some children come out unscathed after being faced with traumatic events, which is known as resilience. Many factors can account for the invulnerability displayed by certain children in response to adverse social conditions: gender, vulnerability, social support systems, and innate character traits. Much of the research in this area has referred to the Adverse Childhood Experiences Study (ACE) study. The ACE study found several protective factors against developing mental health disorders, including mother-child relations, parental health, and community support. However, having adverse childhood experiences creates long-lasting impacts on psychosocial functioning, such as a heightened awareness of environmental threats, feelings of loneliness, and cognitive deficits. Individuals with ACEs are more prone to developing severe symptoms than individuals in the same diagnostic category.

Adverse childhood experiences (ACEs) include childhood emotional, physical, or sexual abuse and household dysfunction during childhood. The categories are verbal abuse, physical abuse, contact sexual abuse, a battered mother/father, household substance abuse, household mental illness, incarcerated household members, and parental separation or divorce. The experiences chosen were based upon prior research that has shown to them to have significant negative health or social implications, and for which substantial efforts are being made in the public and private sector to reduce their frequency of occurrence. Scientific evidence is mounting that such adverse childhood experiences (ACEs) have a profound long-term effect on health. Research shows that exposure to abuse and to serious forms of family dysfunction in the childhood family environment are likely to activate the stress response, thus potentially disrupting the developing nervous, immune, and metabolic systems of children. ACEs are associated with lifelong physical and mental health problems that emerge in adolescence and persist into adulthood, including cardiovascular disease, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease, autoimmune diseases, substance abuse, and depression.

Epigenetics of anxiety and stress–related disorders is the field studying the relationship between epigenetic modifications of genes and anxiety and stress-related disorders, including mental health disorders such as generalized anxiety disorder (GAD), post-traumatic stress disorder, obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD), and more. These changes can lead to transgenerational stress inheritance.

Out-of-home placements are an alternative form of care when children must be removed from their homes. Children who are placed out of the home differ in the types and severity of maltreatment experienced compared to children who remain in the home. One-half to two-thirds of youth have experienced a traumatic event leading to increased awareness and growing literature on the impact of trauma on youth. The most common reasons for out-of-home placements are due to physical or sexual abuse, violence, and neglect. Youth who are at risk in their own homes for abuse, neglect, or maltreatment, as well as youth with severe emotional and behavior issues, are placed out of the home with extended family and friends, foster care, or in residential facilities. Out-of-home placements aim to provide children with safety and stability. This temporary, safe environment allows youth to have their physical, mental, moral, and social needs met. However, these youth are in a vulnerable position for experiencing repeated abuse and neglect.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Internet-based treatments for trauma survivors</span>

Internet-based treatments for trauma survivors is a growing class of online treatments that allow for an individual who has experienced trauma to seek and receive treatment without needing to attend psychotherapy in person. The progressive movement to online resources and the need for more accessible mental health services has given rise to the creation of online-based interventions aimed to help those who have experienced traumatic events. Cognitive behavioral therapy (CBT) has shown to be particularly effective in the treatment of trauma-related disorders and adapting CBT to an online format has been shown to be as effective as in-person CBT in the treatment of trauma. Due to its positive outcomes, CBT-based internet treatment options for trauma survivors has been an expanding field in both research and clinical settings.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Narrative exposure therapy</span> Short-term therapy for trauma-related disorders

Narrative Exposure Therapy (NET) is a short-term psychotherapy used for the treatment of post-traumatic stress disorder and other trauma-related mental disorders. It creates a written account of the traumatic experiences of a patient or group of patients, with the aim of recapturing self-respect and acknowledging the patient's value. NET is an individual treatment, NETfacts is a format for communities. Narrative Exposure Therapy is a subtype of Written Exposure Therapy.

Sexual trauma therapy is medical and psychological interventions provided to survivors of sexual violence aiming to treat their physical injuries and cope with mental trauma caused by the event. Examples of sexual violence include any acts of unwanted sexual actions like sexual harassment, groping, rape, and circulation of sexual content without consent.

Being exposed to traumatic events such as war, violence, disasters, loss, injury or illness can cause trauma. Additionally, the most common diagnostic instruments such as the ICD-11 and the DSM-5 expand on this definition of trauma to include perceived threat to death, injury, or sexual violence to self or a loved one. Even after the situation has passed, the experience can bring up a sense of vulnerability, hopelessness, anger and fear.

Psychological trauma in adultswho are older, is the overall prevalence and occurrence of trauma symptoms within the older adult population.. This should not be confused with geriatric trauma. Although there is a 90% likelihood of an older adult experiencing a traumatic event, there is a lack of research on trauma in older adult populations. This makes research trends on the complex interaction between traumatic symptom presentation and considerations specifically related to the older adult population difficult to pinpoint. This article reviews the existing literature and briefly introduces various ways, apart from the occurrence of elder abuse, that psychological trauma impacts the older adult population.

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[1] [2]

  1. ↑ van der Kolk, B.A. (2005). The body keeps the score: Brain, mind, and body in the healing of trauma.
  2. ↑ Teicher, Martin H.; Samson, Jacqueline A. (October 2013). "Childhood maltreatment and psychopathology: A case for ecophenotypic variants as clinically and neurobiologically distinct subtypes". The American Journal of Psychiatry. 170 (10): 1114–1133. doi:10.1176/appi.ajp.2013.12070957. ISSN   1535-7228. PMC   3928064 . PMID   23982148.
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