Technostress has been defined as the negative psychological relationship between people and the introduction of new technologies. Where ergonomics is the study of how humans physically react to and fit into machines in their environment, technostress is a result of altered behaviors brought about by the use of modern technologies at office and home environments.[1]
People experience technostress when they cannot adapt to or cope with information technologies in a healthy manner. They may feel a compulsive need to stay connected and share constant updates, feel forced to respond to work-related information in real-time, or engage in habitual multi-tasking. They feel compelled to work faster because information flows faster, and have little time for sustained thinking and creative analysis.
Craig Brod, a leader in the field of technostress research, states that technostress is "a modern disease of adaptation caused by an inability to cope with the new computer technologies in a healthy manner."[2] Some of the earliest technostress studies is in the field of Management Information Systems. The studies show that technostress is an undesirable phenomenon spawned by the use of computing and communication devices such as computers, tablets, and smartphones.[3] Newer empirical research in this field, however, indicates that technostress has both positive and negative aspects.[4] Research also suggests that technostress is dependent on gender, age, and computer literacy. Women experience lower technostress than men; older people experience less technostress at work than younger people; and those with greater computer literacy experience lower technostress.[5][6][7]
First use of the term
As early as 1984, Brod defined technostress as a “modern disease of adaptation caused by an inability to cope with the new computer technologies in a healthy manner”.[8][9] Technostress is later considered as the name for mental stress related to technology use,[10] including excessive physiological and emotional arousal.
More recent definitions of technostress refer to it as physical, behavioural, and psychological strain in response to ICT dependence, to increasing computer complexity, and accelerated ICT-driven work changes. Atanasoff and Venable considered technostress in three main categories: transactional and perceived stress, biology, and occupational health.[8]
Symptoms and outcomes
There are a number of symptoms of technostress, including both psychological and physiological symptoms. For example, those experiencing technostress related anxiety may also experience physiological symptoms such as insomnia, loss of temper, irritability, frustration, increased errors in judgement, and poor job performance. Consequences of technostress include decreases in job satisfaction, organizational commitment, and productivity of an individual.
In the 21st century, those who use technology at the workplace are most at risk of experiencing technostress. Increased exposure to computer monitors is associated with emotional stress, and people are emotionally affected by technostress in their workplaces.
Physical aspects include eye strain, backaches, headaches, stiff shoulders, neck pain, joint pain, dry mouth and throat, muscle tension, stomach discomfort, keyboard related injuries, chest pain, rapid heart rate, irritable bowel syndrome, increased blood pressure, and difficulty breathing.
Emotional aspects include irritability, loss of temper, having a high state of anxiety when separated from a computer monitor, feelings of indifference, frustration, lack of appreciation, depression, guilt, feeling fearful, paranoia that leads to avoiding computers and negative attitudes.
Psychological aspects include composed of information overload in order to find, analyse, evaluate, and apply it in the right context with resources, underwork and routine jobs lead to frustrations when underemployed or when the work done involves only routine operations, job security, where people have a fear that computers may replace human roles, professional jealousy produced by technological competency, de-motivation due to prolonged periods of any technological activity, uncertainty about job role caused by an increased time working with technology.
There are five conditions that are classified as "technostress creators":[3]
"Techno-overload" describes situations where use of computers forces people to work more and work faster.
"Techno-invasion" describes being “always exposed” where people can potentially be reached anywhere and any time and feel the need to be constantly connected. The regular work-day is extended, office work is done at all sorts of hours, and it is almost impossible to "cut away."
"Techno-complexity" describes situations where the complex computer systems used at work force people to spend time and effort in learning and understanding how to use new applications and to update their skills. People find the variety of applications, functions, and jargon intimidating and consequently feel stressed.
"Techno-insecurity" is associated with situations where people feel threatened about losing their jobs to other people who have a better understanding of new gadgets and computing devices.
"Techno-uncertainty" relates to short life cycles of computer systems. Continuing changes and upgrades do not give people a chance to acquire experience with a particular system. People find this unsettling because their knowledge becomes rapidly outdated and they are required to re-learn things very rapidly and often.
A recent empirical study on technostress reframes technostress by conceptualizing it in terms of a holistic technostress process involving two critical subprocesses: the techno-eustress subprocess and the techno-distress subprocess.[12] This holistic technostress model frames technostress as a process that hinges on individuals appraising environmental conditions as challenge techno-stressors, defined as techno-stressors that individuals tend to appraise as related to promoting task accomplishment, or hindrance techno-stressors, defined as techno-stressors that individuals tend to appraise as a barrier to task accomplishment. The challenge and hindrance techno-stressors are related to positive and negative psychological states in the individual, respectively, and in turn, positive and negative individual and organizational outcomes. The holistic technostress model and its components were empirically validated in the context of healthcare.[12]
"Environmental conditions" represent potential sources of technology-related stressful situations that may interact with any other environmental conditions such as role demands, task demands, interpersonal and behavioural expectations, job conditions, and workplace policies, among others.
The "Techno-eustress subprocess" involves:
"Challenge techno-stressors" are technostressors that individuals tend to appraise as related to promoting task accomplishment. Examples include usefulness and involvement facilitation.
"Positive psychological responses" are positive psychological responses to a technostressor, as indicated by the presence of positive psychological states.
"Positive outcomes" are positive individual and organizational consequences related to the positive psychological state of the individual. Examples include an increase in job satisfaction and a decrease in turnover intention.
The "Techno-distress subprocess" involves:
"Hindrance techno-stressors" are technostressors that individuals tend to appraise as a barrier or obstacle to task accomplishment. Examples include unreliability, insecurity, and overload.
"Negative psychological responses" are negative psychological responses to a technostressor, as indicated by the presence of negative psychological states.
"Negative outcomes" are negative individual and organizational consequences related to the negative psychological state of the individual. Examples include a decrease in job satisfaction and an increase in attrition and turnover intention.
The techno-stressors, psychological responses, and outcomes are governed by three evaluation processes:
An "Appraisal process" is an intrapersonal process through which individuals appraise the technology-associated environmental conditions as challenges or hindrances.
A "Decision process" is an intrapersonal process through which individuals decide how to respond either positively or negatively to the appraised technostressor. This process occurs before the psychological response but after the individual has determined if the environmental condition represents a challenge or hindrance techno-stressor.
A "Performance process" is an intrapersonal process through which individuals decide how to act on their psychological response. This process occurs after the psychological response but before the individual determines his or her outcome.
Coping strategies
Technostress can be treated by getting user friendly software and educating people about new technology and creating better level of reassurance, patience and stability and communication within the job environment. Other option is avoid or restrict use of technology.
Ways to eliminate technostress are[5] conducting stress management activities to lessen and eliminate the problem of technostress such as exercise, meditation, progressive muscle relaxation, positive self talk, staying healthy and having healthy diet. Taking frequent breaks from technology, having a schedule, counseling, having awareness of technostress, establishing a teamwork relationship with colleagues may help.
↑ Brod, Craig. Technostress: The Human Cost of the Computer Revolution. Reading, Mass: Addison Weslety, 1984.
1 2 Tarafdar, M., Ragu-Nathan, T.S., Ragu-Nathan, B. and Tu, Q., The Impact of Technostress on Productivity, Journal of Management Information Systems, Summer 2007
↑ Califf, C.B., Sarker, S., Sarker, S. "The Bright and Dark Sides of Technostress: A Mixed-Methods Study Involving Healthcare IT", MIS Quarterly, 2020
1 2 Ragu-Nathan, T.S., Tarafdar, M., Ragu-Nathan, B. and Tu, Q., Consequence of Technostress in End Users: Conceptual Development and Empirical Validation, Information Systems Research, December 2008, 19, 4, 417-433.
↑ Tarafdar, M, Tu, Q., Ragu-Nathan, T.S and Ragu-Nathan, B.S. Crossing over to the “Dark Side”: Examining Creators, Inhibitors and Outcomes of Technostress, Communications of the ACM (Contributed Research Article), September 2011.
↑ Maier, C., Laumer, S., Eckhardt, A., and Weitzel, T. Giving too much Social Support: Social Overload on Social Networking Sites, European Journal of Information Systems (EJIS). doi: 10.1057/ejis.2014.3.
↑ Brod, C. (1984). Technostress: The human cost of the computer revolution. Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley.
↑ Weil, M. M., & Rosen, L. D. (1997). Technostress: Coping with technology @home @work @ play. New York, NY:
↑ Ennis, Lisa A. "The Evolution of Technostress." Computers in Libraries, Sept. 2005, 10-12.
1 2 Califf, C. B., Sarker, S., & Sarker, S. (2020). The Bright and Dark Sides of Technostress: A Mixed-Methods Study Involving Healthcare IT. MIS Quarterly (MISQ). doi: 10.25300/MISQ/2020/14818.
↑ Califf, C. B., Sarker, S., & Sarker, S. (2020). The Bright and Dark Sides of Technostress: A Mixed-Methods Study Involving Healthcare IT. MIS Quarterly (MISQ). doi: 10.25300/MISQ/2020/14818.
General
Califf, C. B., Sarker, S., & Sarker, S. (2020). The Bright and Dark Sides of Technostress: A Mixed-Methods Study Involving Healthcare IT. MIS Quarterly, Vol. 44, No.2, pp.809–856.
Tarafdar, M., Cooper, C.L., Stich, J. The technostress trifecta - techno eustress, techno distress and design: Theoretical directions and an agenda for research, Information Systems Journal, Volume 30, Issue 1, 2019
Bachiller, R. T. (2001): Technostress among library staff and patrons of the U. P. Diliman libraries. University of the Philippines, Diliman.
Caguiat, C.A. (2001): Effects of stress and burnout on librarians in selected academic libraries in Metro Manila. University of the Philippines, Diliman.
Dimzon, S. (2007): Technostress among PAARL members and their management strategies: a basis for a staff development program. PUP, Manila.
Riedl, R., Kindermann, H., Auinger, A., Javor, A. (2012): Technostress From a Neurobiological Perspective: System Breakdown Increases the Stress Hormone Cortisol in Computer Users. Business & Information Systems Engineering, Vol. 4, No. 2, pp.61–69.
Riedl, R. (2013). On the Biology of Technostress: Literature Review and Research Agenda. The DATABASE for Advances in Information Systems, Vol. 44, No. 1, pp.18–55.
Riedl, R., Kindermann, H., Auinger, A., Javor, A. (2013): Computer Breakdown as a Stress Factor during Task Completion under Time Pressure: Identifying Gender Differences Based on Skin Conductance. Advances in Human-Computer Interaction, Volume 2013, Article ID 420169.
External links
Look up technostress in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.
Intrapersonal communication is communication with oneself or self-to-self communication. Examples are thinking to oneself "I will do better next time" after having made a mistake or imagining a conversation with one's boss in preparation for leaving work early. It is often understood as an exchange of messages in which the sender and the receiver is the same person. Some theorists use a wider definition that goes beyond message-based accounts and focuses on the role of meaning and making sense of things. Intrapersonal communication can happen alone or in social situations. It may be prompted internally or occur as a response to changes in the environment.
Information overload is the difficulty in understanding an issue and effectively making decisions when one has too much information (TMI) about that issue, and is generally associated with the excessive quantity of daily information. The term "information overload" was first used as early as 1962 by scholars in management and information studies, including in Bertram Gross' 1964 book, The Managing of Organizations, and was further popularized by Alvin Toffler in his bestselling 1970 book Future Shock. Speier et al. (1999) said that if input exceeds the processing capacity, information overload occurs, which is likely to reduce the quality of the decisions.
Computer rage refers to negative psychological responses towards a computer due to heightened anger or frustration. Examples of computer rage include cursing or yelling at a computer, slamming or throwing a keyboard or a mouse, and assaulting the computer or monitor with an object or weapon.
Sensory overload occurs when one or more of the body's senses experiences over-stimulation from the environment.
The term eustress means "beneficial stress"—either psychological, physical, or biochemical/radiological (hormesis).
Appraisal theory is the theory in psychology that emotions are extracted from our evaluations of events that cause specific reactions in different people. Essentially, our appraisal of a situation causes an emotional, or affective, response that is going to be based on that appraisal. An example of this is going on a first date. If the date is perceived as positive, one might feel happiness, joy, giddiness, excitement, and/or anticipation, because they have appraised this event as one that could have positive long-term effects, i.e. starting a new relationship, engagement, or even marriage. On the other hand, if the date is perceived negatively, then our emotions, as a result, might include dejection, sadness, emptiness, or fear. Reasoning and understanding of one's emotional reaction becomes important for future appraisals as well. The important aspect of the appraisal theory is that it accounts for individual variability in emotional reactions to the same event.
Dispositional affect, similar to mood, is a personality trait or overall tendency to respond to situations in stable, predictable ways. This trait is expressed by the tendency to see things in a positive or negative way. People with high positive affectivity tend to perceive things through "pink lens" while people with high negative affectivity tend to perceive things through "black lens". The level of dispositional affect affects the sensations and behavior immediately and most of the time in unconscious ways, and its effect can be prolonged. Research shows that there is a correlation between dispositional affect and important aspects in psychology and social science, such as personality, culture, decision making, negotiation, psychological resilience, perception of career barriers, and coping with stressful life events. That is why this topic is important both in social psychology research and organizational psychology research.
Emotional self-regulation or emotion regulation is the ability to respond to the ongoing demands of experience with the range of emotions in a manner that is socially tolerable and sufficiently flexible to permit spontaneous reactions as well as the ability to delay spontaneous reactions as needed. It can also be defined as extrinsic and intrinsic processes responsible for monitoring, evaluating, and modifying emotional reactions. Emotional self-regulation belongs to the broader set of emotion regulation processes, which includes both the regulation of one's own feelings and the regulation of other people's feelings.
Negative affectivity (NA), or negative affect, is a personality variable that involves the experience of negative emotions and poor self-concept. Negative affectivity subsumes a variety of negative emotions, including anger, contempt, disgust, guilt, fear, and nervousness. Low negative affectivity is characterized by frequent states of calmness and serenity, along with states of confidence, activeness, and great enthusiasm.
Protection motivation theory (PMT) was originally created to help understand individual human responses to fear appeals. Protection motivation theory proposes that people protect themselves based on two factors: threat appraisal and coping appraisal. Threat appraisal assesses the severity of the situation and examines how serious the situation is, while coping appraisal is how one responds to the situation. Threat appraisal consists of the perceived severity of a threatening event and the perceived probability of the occurrence, or vulnerability. Coping appraisal consists of perceived response efficacy, or an individual's expectation that carrying out the recommended action will remove the threat, and perceived self efficacy, or the belief in one's ability to execute the recommended courses of action successfully.
Emotions in the workplace play a large role in how an entire organization communicates within itself and to the outside world. "Events at work have real emotional impact on participants. The consequences of emotional states in the workplace, both behaviors and attitudes, have substantial significance for individuals, groups, and society". "Positive emotions in the workplace help employees obtain favorable outcomes including achievement, job enrichment and higher quality social context". "Negative emotions, such as fear, anger, stress, hostility, sadness, and guilt, however increase the predictability of workplace deviance,", and how the outside world views the organization.
Cognitive appraisal is the subjective interpretation made by an individual to stimuli in the environment. It is a component in a variety of theories relating to stress, mental health, coping, and emotion. It is most notably used in the transactional model of stress and coping, introduced in a 1984 publication by Richard Lazarus and Susan Folkman. In this theory, cognitive appraisal is defined as the way in which an individual responds to and interprets stressors in life. A variety of mental disorders have been observed as having abnormal patterns of cognitive appraisal in those affected by the disorder. Other work has detailed how personality can influence the way in which individuals cognitively appraise a situation.
In psychology, stress is a feeling of emotional strain and pressure. Stress is a type of psychological pain. Small amounts of stress may be beneficial, as it can improve athletic performance, motivation and reaction to the environment. Excessive amounts of stress, however, can increase the risk of strokes, heart attacks, ulcers, and mental illnesses such as depression and also aggravation of a pre-existing condition.
The Spillover-Crossover model is used in psychological research to examine to impact of the work domain on the home domain, and consequently, the transference of work-related emotions from the employee to others at home. The ways in which well-being can be transferred have been categorized into two different mechanisms (;): spillover and crossover.
Interpersonal emotion regulation is the process of changing the emotional experience of one's self or another person through social interaction. It encompasses both intrinsic emotion regulation, in which one attempts to alter their own feelings by recruiting social resources, as well as extrinsic emotion regulation, in which one deliberately attempts to alter the trajectory of other people's feelings.
Adaptive performance in the work environment refers to adjusting to and understanding change in the workplace. An employee who is versatile is valued and important in the success of an organization. Employers seek employees with high adaptability, due to the positive outcomes that follow, such as excellent work performance, work attitude, and ability to handle stress. Employees, who display high adaptive performance in an organization, tend to have more advantages in career opportunities unlike employees who are not adaptable to change. In previous literature, Pulakos and colleagues established eight dimensions of adaptive performance.
Job strain is a form of psychosocial stress that occurs in the workplace. One of the most common forms of stress, it is characterized by a combination of low salaries, high demands, and low levels of control over things such as raises and paid time off. Stresses at work can be eustress, a positive type of stress, or distress, a negative type of stress. Job strain in the workplace has proved to result in poor psychological health, and eventually physical health. Job strain has been a recurring issue for years and affects men and women differently.
A functional account of emotions posits that emotions facilitate adaptive responses to environmental challenges. In other words, emotions are systems that respond to environmental input, such as a social or physical challenge, and produce adaptive output, such as a particular behavior. Under such accounts, emotions can manifest in maladaptive feelings and behaviors, but they are largely beneficial insofar as they inform and prepare individuals to respond to environmental challenges, and play a crucial role in structuring social interactions and relationships.
Environmental sensitivity describes the ability of an individual to perceive and process information about their environment. It is a basic trait found in many organisms that enables an individual to adapt to different environmental conditions. Levels of Environmental Sensitivity often vary considerably from individual to individual, with some being more and others less sensitive to the same conditions. Such differences have been observed across many species such as pumpkinseed fish, zebra finches, mice, non-human primates and humans, indicating that there is a biological basis to differences in sensitivity.
Media fatigue is psychological exhaustion due to information overload from any form of media, though it is generally from news media and social media. The advent of the internet has contributed widely to media fatigue with vast amounts of information easily accessible and easily disseminated. Psychological exhaustion caused by media fatigue can lead to several negative outcomes, including emotional instability, increased stress, feeling overwhelmed, or experiencing sensory overload. Media fatigue can then lead to media avoidance, or intentional selectivity in the type and amount of media that is consumed.
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