Stress management

Last updated

Stress management consists of a wide spectrum of techniques and psychotherapies aimed at controlling a person's level of psychological stress, especially chronic stress, generally for the purpose of improving the function of everyday life. Stress produces numerous physical and mental symptoms which vary according to each individual's situational factors. These can include a decline in physical health, such as headaches, chest pain, fatigue, sleep problems, [1] and depression. The process of stress management is a key factor that can lead to a happy and successful life in modern society.[ citation needed ] Stress management provides numerous ways to manage anxiety and maintain overall well-being.

Contents

There are several models of stress management, each with distinctive explanations of mechanisms for controlling stress. Much more research is necessary to provide a better understanding of which mechanisms actually operate and are effective in practice.

Management Techniques

Many stress management techniques cope with stresses one may find themselves withholding. Some of the following ways reduce a lower than usual stress level temporarily, to compensate the biological issues involved; others face the stressors at a higher level of abstraction:

Some stresses are caused by high demand levels that load the person with extra effort and work. in this case, a new time schedule can be worked up, limiting the normal frequency and duration of former schedules until the period of abnormally high personal demand has passed.

Techniques of stress management will vary according to the philosophical paradigm. [4]

Historical foundations

Walter Cannon and Hans Selye used animal studies to establish the earliest scientific basis for the study of stress. They measured the physiological responses of animals to external pressures, such as heat and cold, prolonged restraint, and surgical procedures then extrapolated from these studies to human beings. [5] [6]

Subsequent studies of stress in humans by Richard Rahe and others established that stress is caused by distinct, measurable life stressors, and that these life stressors can be ranked by the median degree of stress they produce (leading to the Holmes and Rahe stress scale). Holmes and Rahe is focused on how life's stressors can influence ones health and wellness. The scale was developed to measure the effects of stress on health using life change units, in an attempt to quantify stress and its correlation to illness.Thus, stress was traditionally conceptualized to be a result of external insults beyond the control of those experiencing the stress. More recently, however, it has been argued that external circumstances do not have any intrinsic capacity to produce stress, but instead, their effect is mediated by the individual's perceptions, capacities, and understanding.

There are several models of stress management, each with distinctive explanations of mechanisms for controlling stress. Much more research is necessary to provide a better understanding of which mechanisms actually operate and are effective in practice.

Models

The generalized models are:

Transactional model

In 1981, Richard Lazarus and Susan Folkman suggested that stress can be thought of as resulting from an "imbalance between demands and resources" or as occurring when "pressure exceeds one's perceived ability to cope". Stress management was developed and premised on the idea that stress is not a direct response to a stressor but rather an individual's resources and abilities to cope and mediate the stress response which are amenable to change, thus allowing stress to be controllable. [7] [8]

Transactional Model of Stress and Coping of Richard Lazarus Transactional Model of Stress and Coping - Richard Lazarus.svg
Transactional Model of Stress and Coping of Richard Lazarus

Among the many stressors mentioned by employees, these are the most common:

In order to develop an effective stress management program, it is first necessary to identify the factors that are central to a person controlling his/her stress and to identify the intervention methods which effectively target these factors. Lazarus and Folkman's interpretation of stress focuses on the transaction between people and their external environment (known as the Transactional Model). The model contends that stress may not be a stressors if the person does not perceive the stressors as a threat but rather as positive or even challenging. Also, if the person possesses or can use adequate coping skills, then stress may not actually be a result or develop because of the stressors. The model proposes that people can be taught to manage their stress and cope with their stressors. They may learn to change their perspective of the stressors and provide them with the ability and confidence to improve their lives and handle all of the types of stressors.

Health realization/innate health model

The health realization/innate health model of stress is founded on the idea that stress does not necessarily follow the presence of a potential stressor. Instead of focusing on the individual's appraisal of so-called stressors in relation to his or her own coping skills (as the transactional model does), the health realization model focuses on the nature of thought, stating that it is ultimately a person's thought processes that determines the response to potentially stressful external circumstances. In this model, stress results from appraising oneself and one's circumstances through a mental filter of insecurity and negativity, whereas a feeling of well-being results from approaching the world with a "quiet mind". [10] [11] This theory deposits that moods fluctuate and cannot be changed by a specific pattern of thinking. Mental discomfort is only deepened by focus on how to change one's mood, so moods should be "waited out" and dwelling avoided based on this framework. [12] This model proposes that helping stressed individuals understand the nature of thought—especially providing them with the ability to recognize when they are in the grip of insecure thinking, disengage from it, and access natural positive feelings—will reduce their stress.

Stress prevention and resilience

Although many techniques have traditionally been developed to deal with the consequences of stress, considerable research has also been conducted on the prevention of stress, a subject closely related to psychological resilience-building. A number of self-help approaches to stress-prevention and resilience-building have been developed, drawing mainly on the theory and practice of cognitive-behavioral therapy. [13]

Measuring stress

There are different ways to measure stress levels. One way is through psychological testing. The Holmes and Rahe Stress Scale is used to rate stressful life events and how life stressors influence illness. The DASS (Depression Anxiety Stress Scales) contains a scale for stress based on self-report items. Changes in blood pressure and galvanic skin response can also be measured to test stress levels. A digital thermometer can be used to evaluate changes in skin temperature, which can indicate activation of the fight-or-flight response drawing blood away from the extremities. Cortisol is the main hormone released during a stress response and measuring cortisol from hair will give a 60- to 90-day baseline stress level of an individual. This method of measuring stress is currently the most popular method in the clinic .

Despite stress often being thought of as a subjective experience, levels of stress are readily measurable; using various physiological tests, similar to those used in polygraphs. An example of stress being measured is using nano EEG sensors in detecting stress. [14]

Effectiveness

Stress management has physiological and immune benefits. [15]

Positive outcomes are observed using a combination of non-drug interventions: [16]

Stress management programs

Many businesses have begun to use stress management programs for employees who are having trouble adapting to stress at the workplace or at home. Some companies provide special equipment adapting to stress in the workplace to their employees, like coloring diaries [19] and stress relieving gadgets. [20] Many people have spill over stress from home into their working environment. There are a couple of ways businesses try to reduce the stress levels of their employees. One way is through individual intervention. This starts off by monitoring the stressors of the individual. After monitoring what causes the stress, next is attacking that stressor and trying to figure out ways to alleviate them. Developing social support is vital in individual intervention, being with others to help you cope has proven to be a very effective way to avoid stress.[ citation needed ] Changing behavioral patterns, may in turn, help reduce some of the stress that is put on at work as well.

Employee assistance programs can include in-house counseling programs on managing stress. Evaluative research has been conducted on EAPs that teach individuals stress control and inoculation techniques such as relaxation, biofeedback, and cognitive restructuring. Studies show that these programs can reduce the level of physiological arousal associated with high stress. Participants who master behavioral and cognitive stress-relief techniques report less tension, fewer sleep disturbances, and an improved ability to cope with workplace stressors. [21]

Another way of reducing stress at work is by simply changing the workload for an employee, or even giving them more control as to when or where they work. [22]

Improving communications between employees is very effective for helping reduce stress. [23] Making the employee feel like they are a bigger part of the company, by giving them a voice in bigger situations shows trust and value in their opinion. Having all the employees cooperate with each other is an underlying factor which can take away much of workplace stress. Lastly, changing the physical qualities of the workplace may reduce stress. Changing things such as the lighting, air temperature, odor, and up to date technology. [24]

Intervention is broken down into three steps: primary, secondary, tertiary. Primary deals with eliminating the stressors altogether. Secondary deals with detecting stress and figuring out ways to cope with it and improving stress management skills. Finally, tertiary deals with recovery and rehabbing the stress altogether. These three steps are usually the most effective way to deal with stress not just in the workplace, but overall. [25]

Types of stress

Acute stress

Acute stress is the most common form of stress among humans worldwide. [26] It deals with the pressures of the near future or the very recent past. While acute stress is often interpreted as being a negative experience, it can actually be beneficial and even necessary for one's wellbeing because of its protective effects against potentially dangerous threats. [27] Slamming on the brakes while driving in order to avoid a car accident could be considered a moment of beneficial acute stress. [28] Running or any other form of exercise would also be considered an acute stressor. Some exciting or exhilarating experiences such as riding a roller coaster is an acute stress but is usually very enjoyable. Acute stress is a short term stress and as a result, does not have enough time to do the damage that long term stress causes. [29]

Chronic stress

Unlike acute stress, which only lasts for a moment, chronic stress lasts for longer time spans. It has a wearing effect on people that can become a very serious health risk if it continues over a long period of time.

Chronic stress can lead to memory loss, damage spatial recognition and produce a decreased drive of eating. Additional symptoms of chronic stress include aches and pains, insomnia or other sleep disturbances, changes in social behaviors, low energy, emotional withdrawal or other changes in emotional responses, and unfocused thinking. [30] Chronic stress has also been associated with other medical conditions such as hypertension, heart disease, diabetes, obesity, and arthritis. [31]

The severity varies from person to person. Gender difference can also be an underlying factor. Women are able to take longer durations of stress than men without showing the same maladaptive changes. Men can deal with shorter stress duration better than women can. If men hit a certain threshold, the chances of them developing mental issues increase drastically. [32]

Chronic stress is a major health issue that affects people of all ages and can have profound effects on physical and mental health. It is a long-standing, unrelieved, and unavoidable stress, that include busy work, school schedules, and complex relationships. Over time, chronic stress can alter the body's systems, leading to a variety of illnesses and conditions. [33]

Stress in the Workplace

Workplace Stress Workplace Stress.jpg
Workplace Stress

In the workplace, managing stress becomes vital in order to keep up job performance as well as relationship with co-workers and employers. [34] [35] For some workers, changing the work environment relieves work stress. Making the environment less competitive between employees decreases some amounts of stress.[ citation needed ]Companies and businesses tend to be more successful when the work environment facilitates more cooperation rather than competition. In the workplace, people feel more comfortable and capable of completing the work due to their support from coworkers and employers. As a result, both companies and employees benefit from a cooperating relationship. Competition in the workplace can leave employees feeling like it is “every man for himself” which can increase stress. [36]

Author J, Carr [37] highlighted three areas of the workplace that affects the levels of stress experienced. Job demands, individual differences, and social demands. These areas that heighten stress are addressed in Rahe's scale suggesting that some of the greatest stressors in life are connected to the workplace. Stress in the workplace does not always have to be negatively viewed. When managed well, stress can increase employees' focus and productivity. According to the Yerkes–Dodson law, stress is beneficial to human functioning, but only up to a point. People who experience very low levels of stress might feel under stimulated and passive, while those with excessively high levels of stress may feel overwhelmed, anxious, and irritable. Thus, establishing an optimum level of stress is key. [38]

Organizational stress levels that an individual faces is dependent not just on external factors such as job characteristics or environment, but also on intrapersonal factors such as personality, temperament, and individual coping and thinking styles.[ citation needed ]

Also, stress at workplace is not limited to employees. Entrepreneurs also undergo stress [39] This stress can vary from team management, business management or unfavorable policy from the government.

Commitment

Some examples of stressors in the workplace can be their perception of Organization Commitment, which is the way an employee conceptualizes his/her reasons for staying in the organizations for either Affective, Continuance, or Normative reasons. [40] Affective commitment to the organization is the situation where an employee strongly identifies with the values and culture of the organization. This is not directly telling of an employee's stress levels, it is a genuine interest and enjoyment in the employee's work and work relations that places the employee in a good position to manage stress well. Employees who stay in an organization for continuance reasons stay as a result of weighing the pros and cons, and then decides that the opportunity cost of leaving the organization is too high. Employees under this category might experience moderate levels of stress, as their reasons for staying is driven more by external rather than internal motivation. Employees who stay for normative reasons, however, are most likely to experience the highest levels of stress, as these are the employees who stay out of obligation and duty. [41]

Salary

Salary can also be an important concern of employees. Salary can affect the way people work because they can aim for promotion and in result, a higher salary. This can lead to chronic stress.[ citation needed ]

Culture Differences

Cultural differences have also shown to have some major effects on stress coping problems. Eastern Asian employees may deal with certain work situations differently from how a Western North American employee would. [42] In a study conducted in Malaysia, it was found that while the classification of workplace stress is similar between Malaysians and Western employees, the perception of workplace stress as well as the approaches to coping with stress were different. [42] In order to manage stress in the workplace, employers can provide stress managing programs [43] such as therapy, communication programs, and a more flexible work schedule. [44] There have been many studies conducted demonstrating the benefits of mindfulness practices on subjective well-being and work outcomes. [45] Productivity, organization, and performance increase, while burnout rates decrease. Individuals who received either low or high levels of support from their supervisors for stress management usually viewed the intervention positively. This perception was described in terms of the intervention either compensating for or complementing their work environment, depending on the level of support received. [46]

Stress in the Medical environment

A study was done on the stress levels in general practitioners and hospital consultants in 1999. Over 500 medical employees participated in this study done by R.P Caplan. These results showed that 47% of the workers scored high on their questionnaire for high levels of stress. 27% of the general practitioners even scored to be very depressed. Managers stress levels were not as high as the actual practitioners themselves. An eye opening statistic showed that nearly 54% of workers suffered from anxiety while being in the hospital. Although this was a small sample size for hospitals around the world, Caplan feels this trend is probably fairly accurate across the majority of hospitals. [47]

In addition, there is a study that the objective of this study was to investigate the relationship between work performance and self-reported symptoms of depression, stress, and anxiety among nurses working in tuberculosis (TB)/HIV and COVID-19 units on Timor Island, Indonesia. The study used a comparative, cross-sectional design and collected data between October 2020 and January 2021. The study group comprised 236 nurses working in TB/HIV isolation rooms and 423 nurses in COVID-19 isolation rooms. The Depression, Anxiety, and Stress scale (DASS-42) and a work performance questionnaire were used to collect data, which were analyzed using independent t-testing and Pearson correlation coefficient. The results showed that the mean DASS-42 scores of nurses in TB/HIV isolation units were low, indicating minimal effects, while those in COVID-19 isolation units demonstrated moderate levels of depression, stress, and anxiety. Additionally, the work performance results indicated that the nurses in the TB/HIV isolation rooms had sufficient work performance, while those in the COVID-19 isolation rooms had weaker work performance. There was a significant difference in work performance between nurses in the two units. The study concluded that there was a correlation between nurses' depression, stress, and anxiety levels and their work performance in TB/HIV and COVID-19 isolation units. [48]

Stress in the Aviation industry

Aviation is a high-stress industry, given that it requires a high level of precision at all times. Chronically high stress levels can ultimately decrease the performance and compromise safety. [49] To be effective, stress measurement tools must be specific to the aviation industry, given its unique working environment and other stressors. [50] Stress measurement in aviation seeks to quantify the psychological stress experienced by aviators, with the goal of making needed improvements to aviators' coping and stress management skills. [50]

To more precisely measure stress, aviators' many responsibilities are broken down into "workloads." This helps to categorize the broad concept of "stress" by specific stressors. [51] Additionally, since different workloads may pose unique stressors, this method may be more effective than measuring stress levels as a whole. Stress measurement tools can then help aviators identify which stressors are most problematic for them, and help them improve on managing workloads, planning tasks, and coping with stress more effectively.

To evaluate workload, a number of tools can be used. The major types of measurement tools are:

  1. Performance-based measures;
  2. Subjective measures, like questionnaires which aviators answer themselves; and
  3. Physiological measures, like measurement of heart rate. [50]

Implementation of evaluation tools requires time, instruments for measurement, and software for collecting data. [50]

Measurement systems

The most commonly used stress measurement systems are primarily rating scale-based. These systems tend to be complex, containing multiple levels with a variety of sections, to attempt to capture the many stressors present in the aviation industry. Different systems may be utilized in different operational specialties.

Pilot stress report systems

Early pilot stress report systems were adapted and modified from existing psychological questionnaires and surveys. [55] The data from these pilot-specific surveys is then processed and analyzed through an aviation-focused system or scale. Pilot-oriented questionnaires are generally designed to study work stress or home stress. [55] Self-report can also be used to measure a combination of home stress, work stress, and perceived performance. A study conducted by Fiedler, Della Rocco, Schroeder and Nguyen (2000) used Sloan and Cooper's modification of the Alkov questionnaire to explore aviators' perceptions of the relationship between different types of stress. The results indicated that pilots believed performance was impaired when home stress carried over to the work environment. The degree of home stress that carried over to work environment was significantly and negatively related to flying performance items, such as planning, control, and accuracy of landings. The questionnaire was able to reflect pilots' retroactive perceptions and the accuracy of these perceptions. [56]

Alkov, Borowsky, and Gaynor started a 22-item questionnaire for U.S. Naval aviators in 1982 to test the hypothesis that inadequate stress coping strategies contributed to flight mishaps. [55] The questionnaire consists of items related to lifestyle changes and personality characteristics. After completing the questionnaire, the test group is divided into two groups: "at-fault" with mishap, and "not-at-fault" in a mishap. Then, questionnaires from these two groups were analyzed to examine differences. [57] A study of British commercial airline pilots, conducted by Sloan and Cooper (1986), surveyed 1,000 pilot members from the British Airline Pilots' Association (BALPA). They used a modified version of Alkov, Borowsky, and Gaynor's questionnaire to collect data on pilots' perceptions of the relationship between stress and performance. Being a subjective measure, this study's data was based on pilots' perceptions, and thus rely on how accurately they recall past experiences their relationships to stress. Despite relying on subjective perceptions and memories, the study showed that pilot reports are noteworthy. [55]

Beck Depression Inventory (BDI) is another scale used in many industries, including the mental health professions, to screen for depressive symptoms. [58]

Parsa and Kapadia (1997) used the BDI to survey a group of 57 U.S. Air Force fighter pilots who had flown combat operations. [55] The adaptation of the BDI to the aviation field was problematic. However, the study revealed some unexpected findings. The results indicated that 89% of the pilots reported insomnia; 86% reported irritability; 63%, dissatisfaction; 38%, guilt; and 35%, loss of libido. 50% of two squadrons and 33% of another squadron scored above 9 on the BDI, suggesting at least low levels of depression. Such measurement may be difficult to interpret accurately.[ why? ]

Stress in College

College can be a stressful time for many students, as they adjust to a new and unfamiliar environment while transitioning from adolescence to adulthood. Nearly 80% of college students report frequently dealing with daily stress. [59] Sources of stress that influence college students’ stress levels include family and friends who are often physically further away, as well as changes in communication patterns with these individuals. Long-held beliefs (i.e. religious beliefs) as well as new opportunities for various behavior (i.e. alcohol and drug use) are also significant influential factors. In addition to these potential sources of stress, college students are also faced with often rigorous academic demands. [60] In order to manage this stress, students rely on many strategies including problem-focused and emotion-focused coping. [61]

Problem-focused strategies employ action-oriented behavioral activities such as planning. Emotion-focused strategies involve the expression of emotion and often include the altering of expectations. Although problem-focused strategies have often been found to be more effective than emotion-focused strategies, both categories include coping mechanisms that effectively reduce the negative impacts of stress. [62] [63]

There are several practical examples of problem-focused or approach-based coping strategies. Notably, developing time management skills, avoiding procrastination, and goal-setting are associated with stress reduction. These skills allow students to better prioritize new responsibilities, leaving them more time for sleep and leisure activities, which have been shown to reduce stress. Additionally, working towards or maintaining healthy sleep habits helps individuals better cope with high levels of stress. [64] [65]

Several emotion-focused strategies have also been found to be effective in combating stress. Accommodation strategies that do not directly change the stressor, but rather change one's emotions surrounding the stressors, such as positive re framing, which are widely associated with stress reduction. [66] Strategies like finding humor and journaling—especially gratitude journaling—are also effective. [67] [65]

Without effective coping skills, students tend to engage in unsafe behaviors as a means of trying to reduce the stress they feel.[ citation needed ]Ineffective coping strategies popular among college students include drinking excessively, drug use, excessive caffeine consumption, withdrawal from social activities, self-harm, and eating disorders. [59] These ineffective strategies can be dangerous because they often become habitual, addictive, and sometimes fatal. For example, when college students turn to drinking as a way of coping with stress, they begin to drink larger quantities and more frequently, instead of just occasionally with friends. [68] This can lead to alcohol poisoning, addiction, and other dangerous behaviors. The problems these coping methods create can cause more harm than good and often lead to more stress for the student. [69]

Researchers have not found significant gender differences in regard to how men and women use problem-focused coping strategies. However, there is gender variation in regard to emotion-focused coping. Women tend to use emotion-focused coping strategies more often than men on average. However, men do report using one emotion-focused coping strategy more often than women—mental disengagement in the form of alcohol use. [63] Mental disengagement refers to when individuals refocus their negative emotions to an alternative resource, such as alcohol, instead of addressing the original stressor. [70] Overall, women report higher stress levels than men, specifically for social relationships, daily hassles, finances, self-imposed stress, frustration, and academics. [63] This could be because women are often more in-tune to their emotions and are more comfortable expressing their feelings. [71]

While stress for college students is part of the transitional experience, there are many strategies that students can use to reduce stress in their lives and manage the impacts of stress. Time management skills which encompass goal setting, scheduling, and pacing are effective approaches to reducing stress. Additionally, students should keep up their physical and mental health with regular exercise, healthy eating, good sleep habits, and mindfulness practices. [65] There are several services, such as counseling and therapy, available to students that can be accessed both on and off campus to support stress management and overall student wellbeing. Adults in college benefit fairly equally from methods that are more directly related to stress management (such as time management and relaxation exercises) and being physically active (such as adding running or weight lifting into your regular routine). [72]

An approach for stress relief commonly adopted by college students is engaging in gaming as a hobby. While some research suggests a negative relationship between video game usage and academic performance, several studies indicate a positive correlation between stress reduction and playing casual video games. For instance, one study demonstrated that engaging in casual video games effectively decreased psychological and physiological stress levels among students, with comparable benefits to stress-relieving meditation. When utilized with appropriate time management, video gaming can serve as a viable stress-relief strategy for college students. [73]

See also

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Humour</span> Tendency of experiences to provoke laughter and provide amusement

Humour or humor is the tendency of experiences to provoke laughter and provide amusement. The term derives from the humoral medicine of the ancient Greeks, which taught that the balance of fluids in the human body, known as humours, controlled human health and emotion.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Job satisfaction</span> Attitude of a person towards work

Job satisfaction, employee satisfaction or work satisfaction is a measure of workers' contentment with their job, whether they like the job or individual aspects or facets of jobs, such as nature of work or supervision. Job satisfaction can be measured in cognitive (evaluative), affective, and behavioral components. Researchers have also noted that job satisfaction measures vary in the extent to which they measure feelings about the job. or cognitions about the job.

Ergophobia is described as an extreme and debilitating fear associated with work, a fear of finding or losing employment, or fear of specific tasks in the workplace. The term ergophobia comes from the Greek "ergon" (work) and "phobos" (fear).

Coping refers to conscious or unconscious strategies used to reduce and manage unpleasant emotions. Coping strategies can be cognitions or behaviors and can be individual or social. To cope is to deal with struggles and difficulties in life. It is a way for people to maintain their mental and emotional well-being. Everybody has ways of handling difficult events that occur in life, and that is what it means to cope. Coping can be healthy and productive, or destructive and unhealthy. It is recommended that an individual cope in ways that will be beneficial and healthy. "Managing your stress well can help you feel better physically and psychologically and it can impact your ability to perform your best."

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Social support</span> Support systems for individuals

Social support is the perception and actuality that one is cared for, has assistance available from other people, and most popularly, that one is part of a supportive social network. These supportive resources can be emotional, informational, or companionship ; tangible or intangible. Social support can be measured as the perception that one has assistance available, the actual received assistance, or the degree to which a person is integrated in a social network. Support can come from many sources, such as family, friends, pets, neighbors, coworkers, organizations, etc.

A relaxation technique is any method, process, procedure, or activity that helps a person to relax; attain a state of increased calmness; or otherwise reduce levels of pain, anxiety, stress or anger. Relaxation techniques are often employed as one element of a wider stress management program and can decrease muscle tension, lower blood pressure, and slow heart and breath rates, among other health benefits.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Emotional detachment</span> Inability and/or disinterest in emotionally connecting to others

In psychology, emotional detachment, also known as emotional blunting, is a condition or state in which a person lacks emotional connectivity to others, whether due to an unwanted circumstance or as a positive means to cope with anxiety. Such a coping strategy, also known as emotion-focused coping, is used when avoiding certain situations that might trigger anxiety. It refers to the evasion of emotional connections. Emotional detachment may be a temporary reaction to a stressful situation, or a chronic condition such as depersonalization-derealization disorder. It may also be caused by certain antidepressants. Emotional blunting, also known as reduced affect display, is one of the negative symptoms of schizophrenia.

The term eustress means "beneficial stress"—either psychological, physical, or biochemical/radiological (hormesis).

Test anxiety is a combination of physiological over-arousal, tension and somatic symptoms, along with worry, dread, fear of failure, and catastrophizing, that occur before or during test situations. It is a psychological condition in which people experience extreme stress, anxiety, and discomfort during and/or before taking a test. This anxiety creates significant barriers to learning and performance. Research suggests that high levels of emotional distress have a direct correlation to reduced academic performance and higher overall student drop-out rates. Test anxiety can have broader consequences, negatively affecting a student's social, emotional and behavioural development, as well as their feelings about themselves and school.

Positive affectivity (PA) is a human characteristic that describes how much people experience positive affects ; and as a consequence how they interact with others and with their surroundings.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Occupational burnout</span> Type of occupational stress

The ICD-11 of the World Health Organization (WHO) describes occupational burnout as an occupational phenomenon resulting from chronic workplace stress that has not been successfully managed, with symptoms characterized by "feelings of energy depletion or exhaustion; increased mental distance from one’s job, or feelings of negativism or cynicism related to one's job; and reduced professional efficacy." It is classified as a mismatch between the challenges of work and a person's mental and physical resources, but is not recognized by the WHO as a medical condition.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Occupational stress</span> Tensions related to work

Occupational stress is psychological stress related to one's job. Occupational stress refers to a chronic condition. Occupational stress can be managed by understanding what the stressful conditions at work are and taking steps to remediate those conditions. Occupational stress can occur when workers do not feel supported by supervisors or coworkers, feel as if they have little control over the work they perform, or find that their efforts on the job are incommensurate with the job's rewards. Occupational stress is a concern for both employees and employers because stressful job conditions are related to employees' emotional well-being, physical health, and job performance. The World Health Organization and the International Labour Organization conducted a study. The results showed that exposure to long working hours, operates through increased psycho-social occupational stress. It is the occupational risk factor with the largest attributable burden of disease, according to these official estimates causing an estimated 745,000 workers to die from ischemic heart disease and stroke events in 2016.

Despite a large body of positive psychological research into the relationship between happiness and productivity, happiness at work has traditionally been seen as a potential by-product of positive outcomes at work, rather than a pathway to business success. Happiness in the workplace is usually dependent on the work environment. During the past two decades, maintaining a level of happiness at work has become more significant and relevant due to the intensification of work caused by economic uncertainty and increase in competition. Nowadays, happiness is viewed by a growing number of scholars and senior executives as one of the major sources of positive outcomes in the workplace. In fact, companies with higher than average employee happiness exhibit better financial performance and customer satisfaction. It is thus beneficial for companies to create and maintain positive work environments and leadership that will contribute to the happiness of their employees.

Social undermining is the expression of negative emotions directed towards a particular person or negative evaluations of the person as a way to prevent the person from achieving their goals.

Workplace incivility has been defined as low-intensity deviant behavior with ambiguous intent to harm the target. Uncivil behaviors are characteristically rude and discourteous, displaying a lack of regard for others. The authors hypothesize there is an "incivility spiral" in the workplace made worse by "asymmetric global interaction". Incivility is distinct from aggression. The reduction of workplace incivility is an area for industrial and organizational psychology research.

Mental toughness is a measure of individual resilience and confidence that may predict success in sport, education, and the workplace. The concept emerged in the context of sports training, as one of a set of attributes that allow a person to become a better athlete and able to cope with difficult training and difficult competitive situations and emerge without losing confidence. The term has been used by coaches, sport psychologists, sports commentators, and business leaders.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Psychological stress</span> Feeling of strain and pressure

In psychology, stress is a feeling of emotional strain and pressure. Stress is a type of psychological pain and mental discomfort. Small amounts of stress may be beneficial, as it can improve athletic performance, motivation and reaction to the environment. Excessive amounts of stress, however, can increase the risk of strokes, heart attacks, ulcers, and mental illnesses such as depression and also aggravate pre-existing conditions.

Workplace health promotion is the combined efforts of employers, employees, and society to improve the mental and physical health and well-being of people at work. The term workplace health promotion denotes a comprehensive analysis and design of human and organizational work levels with the strategic aim of developing and improving health resources in an enterprise. The World Health Organization has prioritized the workplace as a setting for health promotion because of the large potential audience and influence on all spheres of a person's life. The Luxembourg Declaration provides that health and well-being of employees at work can be achieved through a combination of:

One of the most common ways that people cope with trauma is through the comfort found in religious or spiritual practices. Psychologists of religion have performed multiple studies to measure the positive and negative effects of this coping style. Leading researchers have split religious coping into two categories: positive religious coping and negative religious coping. Individuals who use positive religious coping are likely to seek spiritual support and look for meaning in a traumatic situation. Negative religious coping expresses conflict, question, and doubt regarding issues of God and faith.

A psychosocial hazard or work stressor is any occupational hazard related to the way work is designed, organized and managed, as well as the economic and social contexts of work. Unlike the other three categories of occupational hazard, they do not arise from a physical substance, object, or hazardous energy.

References

  1. ↑ "How stress affects your body and behavior". Mayo Clinic. Retrieved 2022-06-29.
  2. ↑ Lehrer PM, Woolfolk RL, Sime WE (2007). Principles and Practice of Stress Management (Third ed.). New York: Guilford Press. pp.  46–47. ISBN   978-1-59385-000-5.
  3. ↑ Leubner D, Hinterberger T (2017). "Reviewing the Effectiveness of Music Interventions in Treating Depression". Frontiers in Psychology. 8: 1109. doi: 10.3389/fpsyg.2017.01109 . PMC   5500733 . PMID   28736539.
  4. ↑ Spence JD, Barnett PA, Linden W, Ramsden V, Taenzer P (May 1999). "Lifestyle modifications to prevent and control hypertension. 7. Recommendations on stress management. Canadian Hypertension Society, Canadian Coalition for High Blood Pressure Prevention and Control, Laboratory Centre for Disease Control at Health Canada, Heart and Stroke Foundation of Canada". CMAJ. 160 (9 Suppl): S46–S50. PMC   1230339 . PMID   10333853. Dubbed "Destressitizers"
  5. ↑ Cannon W (1939). The Wisdom of the Body (2nd ed.). New York: Norton Publications.
  6. ↑ Selye H (June 1950). "Stress and the general adaptation syndrome". British Medical Journal. 1 (4667): 1383–1392. doi:10.1136/bmj.1.4667.1383. PMC   2038162 . PMID   15426759.
  7. ↑ Lazarus, R.S., & Folkman, S. (1984). Stress, Appraisal, and Coping. New York: Springer.
  8. ↑ Biggs A, Brough P, Drummond S (2017-02-18). "Lazarus and Folkman's Psychological Stress and Coping Theory". In Cooper CL, Quick JC (eds.). The Handbook of Stress and Health. Chichester, UK: John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. pp. 349–364. doi:10.1002/9781118993811.ch21. ISBN   978-1-118-99381-1.
  9. ↑ Somaz WH, Tulgan B (2003). Performance Under Pressure: Managing Stress in the Workplace. Canada: HRD Press Inc. pp. 7–8. ISBN   0-87425-741-7.
  10. ↑ Mills RC (1995). Realizing Mental Health: Toward a new Psychology of Resiliency. Sulzberger & Graham Publishing, Ltd. ISBN   0-945819-78-1.
  11. ↑ Sedgeman JA (December 2005). "Health Realization/Innate Health: can a quiet mind and a positive feeling state be accessible over the lifespan without stress-relief techniques?". Medical Science Monitor. 11 (12): HY47–HY52. PMID   16319796.
  12. ↑ Wartel SG (April 2003). "A Strengths-Based Practice Model: Psychology of Mind and Health Realization". Families in Society: The Journal of Contemporary Social Services. 84 (2): 185–191. doi:10.1606/1044-3894.104. ISSN   1044-3894. S2CID   144256238.
  13. ↑ Robertson D (2012). Build your Resilience. London: Hodder. ISBN   978-1444168716.
  14. ↑ Praveena G, Mathana JM (April 2022). Review on Stress Detection and Management Techniques using Nano EEG Sensors. 2022 IEEE International Conference on Nanoelectronics, Nanophotonics, Nanomaterials, Nanobioscience & Nanotechnology (5NANO). pp. 1–7. doi:10.1109/5NANO53044.2022.9828889. ISBN   978-1-6654-3728-8. S2CID   250662211.
  15. ↑ Bower JE, Segerstrom SC (January 2004). "Stress management, finding benefit, and immune function: positive mechanisms for intervention effects on physiology". Journal of Psychosomatic Research. 56 (1): 9–11. doi:10.1016/S0022-3999(03)00120-X. PMID   14987958.
  16. ↑ Linden W, Lenz JW, Con AH (April 2001). "Individualized stress management for primary hypertension: a randomized trial". Archives of Internal Medicine. 161 (8): 1071–1080. doi:10.1001/archinte.161.8.1071. PMID   11322841.
  17. ↑ Karatza, Eva; Kourou, Dimitra; Galanakis, Michael; Varvogli, Liza; Darviri, Christina (2014). "Perceived Stress Questionnaire--Greek Version". PsycTESTS Dataset. doi:10.1037/t41475-000.
  18. ↑ Frank DL, Khorshid L, Kiffer JF, Moravec CS, McKee MG (June 2010). "Biofeedback in medicine: who, when, why and how?". Mental Health in Family Medicine. 7 (2): 85–91. PMC   2939454 . PMID   22477926.
  19. ↑ "Anti stress diary with adult coloring pages". Archived from the original on 2017-05-15.
  20. ↑ "20 Gadgets to Help You Fight Stress". Hongkiat Magazine. 2016-07-14. Archived from the original on 2017-02-17.
  21. ↑ Schultz DP, Schultz SE (2010). Psychology and Work Today. New York: Prentice Hall. p. 374.
  22. ↑ Kröll C, Doebler P, Nüesch S (2017-09-03). "Meta-analytic evidence of the effectiveness of stress management at work". European Journal of Work and Organizational Psychology. 26 (5): 677–693. doi:10.1080/1359432X.2017.1347157. ISSN   1359-432X. S2CID   149409419.
  23. ↑ Johnson, Pamela R.; Indvik, Julie (March 1990). "The Role Communication Plays in Developing and Reducing Organizational Stress and Burnout". The Bulletin of the Association for Business Communication. 53 (1): 5–9. doi:10.1177/108056999005300103. ISSN   8756-1972.
  24. ↑ Hoffmann, Georg; Gufler, Veronika; Griesmacher, Andrea; Bartenbach, Christian; Canazei, Markus; Staggl, Siegmund; Schobersberger, Wolfgang (November 2008). "Effects of variable lighting intensities and colour temperatures on sulphatoxymelatonin and subjective mood in an experimental office workplace". Applied Ergonomics. 39 (6): 719–728. doi:10.1016/j.apergo.2007.11.005. ISSN   0003-6870. PMID   18164275.
  25. ↑ Hardy S (1998). Occupational Stress: Personal & Professional Approaches. United Kingdom: Stanley Thornes ltd. pp. 18–43.
  26. ↑ LaMorte WW. "What is Stress?". Boston University School of Public Health. Retrieved 2022-06-29.
  27. ↑ Dhabhar FS (May 2014). "Effects of stress on immune function: the good, the bad, and the beautiful". Immunologic Research. 58 (2–3): 193–210. doi:10.1007/s12026-014-8517-0. PMID   24798553. S2CID   255495219.
  28. ↑ Aschbacher K, O'Donovan A, Wolkowitz OM, Dhabhar FS, Su Y, Epel E (September 2013). "Good stress, bad stress and oxidative stress: insights from anticipatory cortisol reactivity". Psychoneuroendocrinology. 38 (9): 1698–1708. doi:10.1016/j.psyneuen.2013.02.004. PMC   4028159 . PMID   23490070.
  29. ↑ McGonagle KA, Kessler RC (October 1990). "Chronic stress, acute stress, and depressive symptoms". American Journal of Community Psychology. 18 (5): 681–706. doi:10.1007/BF00931237. hdl: 2027.42/117092 . PMID   2075897. S2CID   38713589.
  30. ↑ McEwen BS (February 2017). "Neurobiological and Systemic Effects of Chronic Stress". Chronic Stress. 1: 247054701769232. doi:10.1177/2470547017692328. PMC   5573220 . PMID   28856337.
  31. ↑ "Good stress, bad stress". News Center (in Samoan). Retrieved 2022-07-15.
  32. ↑ Bowman RE, Beck KD, Luine VN (January 2003). "Chronic stress effects on memory: sex differences in performance and monoaminergic activity". Hormones and Behavior. 43 (1): 48–59. doi:10.1016/S0018-506X(02)00022-3. PMID   12614634. S2CID   23133767.
  33. ↑ Kang JS, Shin DH, Baek JW, Chung K (2019-10-12). "Activity Recommendation Model Using Rank Correlation for Chronic Stress Management". Applied Sciences. 9 (20): 4284. doi: 10.3390/app9204284 . ISSN   2076-3417.
  34. ↑ Altindag, Ozden (14 March 2020). "Relationship between stress management and job performance in organizations". International Journal of Research in Business and Social Science (2147- 4478). 9 (2): 43–49. doi: 10.20525/ijrbs.v9i2.636 .
  35. ↑ Hoboubi, Naser; Choobineh, Alireza; Kamari Ghanavati, Fatemeh; Keshavarzi, Sareh; Akbar Hosseini, Ali (March 2017). "The Impact of Job Stress and Job Satisfaction on Workforce Productivity in an Iranian Petrochemical Industry". Safety and Health at Work. 8 (1): 67–71. doi:10.1016/j.shaw.2016.07.002. PMC   5355527 . PMID   28344843.
  36. ↑ Chen Yue; Fong, Patrick S. W.; Teng Li (July 2019). "Meeting the challenge of workplace change: Team cooperation outperforms team competition". Social Behavior & Personality. 47 (7): 1–15. doi:10.2224/sbp.7997.
  37. ↑ Carr J, Kelley B, Keaton R, Albrecht C (2011-01-01). "Getting to grips with stress in the workplace: Strategies for promoting a healthier, more productive environment". Human Resource Management International Digest. 19 (4): 32–38. doi:10.1108/09670731111140748. ISSN   0967-0734.
  38. ↑ Yerkes RM, Dodson JD (November 1908). "The relation of strength of stimulus to rapidity of habit-formation". Journal of Comparative Neurology and Psychology. 18 (5): 459–482. doi:10.1002/cne.920180503. ISSN   0092-7015.
  39. ↑ "Simple Hacks to Stress Management for Nigerian Entrepreneurs - Insight.ng". 2021-10-28. Retrieved 2022-08-10.
  40. ↑ Michael L (1998). "Commitment in the workplace: Theory, research and application, by Meyer JP, Allen NJ. (1997). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. 150 pp., $34.00 cloth, $15.95 paper". Human Resource Development Quarterly. 9 (3): 309–312. doi:10.1002/hrdq.3920090309. ISSN   1044-8004.
  41. ↑ Ates ÖT, Ihtiyaroglu N (2019-01-06). "Analysis of the Relationship between Stress and Organizational Commitment in Employees: A Meta-Analysis Study" (PDF). Journal of Education and Training Studies. 7 (1): 94–106. doi:10.11114/jets.v7i1.3702. ISSN   2324-805X. S2CID   149692383. ERIC   EJ1202105.
  42. 1 2 Awang Idris M, Dollard MF, Winefield AH (2010-01-01). "Lay theory explanations of occupational stress: the Malaysian context". Cross Cultural Management. 17 (2): 135–153. doi:10.1108/13527601011038714. ISSN   1352-7606.
  43. ↑ "Workplace Stress Management Resource - OFAI". www.ofai.co.uk. Archived from the original on 2016-03-27.
  44. ↑ Preisler M. "Avoiding change-induced stress in the workplace". Nordic Labour Journal. Archived from the original on 2013-08-24.
  45. ↑ Bhojani Z, Kurucz EC (2020). "Sustainable Happiness, Well-Being, and Mindfulness in the Workplace". The Palgrave Handbook of Workplace Well-Being. Springer International Publishing. pp. 1–25. doi:10.1007/978-3-030-02470-3_52-1. ISBN   978-3-030-02470-3. S2CID   216344603.
  46. ↑ Horan, Kristin A.; Moeller, Mary T.; Singh, R. Sonia; Wasson, Rachel; O’Brien, William H.; Matthews, Russell A.; Jex, Steve M.; Barratt, Clare L. (2018-08-06). "Supervisor support for stress management and intervention process". International Journal of Workplace Health Management. 11 (4): 260–272. doi:10.1108/IJWHM-12-2017-0113. ISSN   1753-8351.
  47. ↑ Caplan RP (November 1994). "Stress, anxiety, and depression in hospital consultants, general practitioners, and senior health service managers". BMJ. 309 (6964): 1261–1263. doi:10.1136/bmj.309.6964.1261. PMC   2541798 . PMID   7888846.
  48. ↑ Merlin NM (2022). "Influence of depression, stress and anxiety on work performance among timor island nurses in tuberculosis/HIV unit and covid-19 unit". Journal of Psychiatric Nursing. doi: 10.14744/phd.2022.79027 . S2CID   248906141.
  49. ↑ Woldring M (1996-03-15). "Human Factors Module: Stress" (PDF). European Organisation for the Safety of Air Navigation. 1: 3–16. Archived (PDF) from the original on 2015-12-22.
  50. 1 2 3 4 Lehrer P, Karavidas M, Lu SE, Vaschillo E, Vaschillo B, Cheng A (May 2010). "Cardiac data increase association between self-report and both expert ratings of task load and task performance in flight simulator tasks: An exploratory study". International Journal of Psychophysiology. 76 (2): 80–87. doi:10.1016/j.ijpsycho.2010.02.006. PMID   20172000.
  51. ↑ Biondi M, Picardi A (1999). "Psychological stress and neuroendocrine function in humans: the last two decades of research". Psychotherapy and Psychosomatics. 68 (3): 114–150. doi:10.1159/000012323. PMID   10224513. S2CID   41340845.
  52. ↑ Langan-Fox J, Sankey MJ, Canty JM (October 2009). "Human factors measurement for future air traffic control systems". Human Factors. 51 (5): 595–637. doi:10.1177/0018720809355278. PMID   20196289. S2CID   206409588.
  53. 1 2 3 Kirschner J, Young J, Fanjoy R (2014). "Stress and coping as a function of experience level in collegiate flight students". Journal of Aviation Technology and Engineering. 3 (2): 14–19. doi: 10.7771/2159-6670.1092 .
  54. ↑ Corwin WH (1992-04-01). "In-flight and post flight assessment of pilot workload in commercial transport aircraft using the subjective workload assessment technique". The International Journal of Aviation Psychology. 2 (2): 77–93. doi:10.1207/s15327108ijap0202_1.
  55. 1 2 3 4 5 Young J (December 2008). The Effects of Life-Stress on Pilot Performance (PDF) (Report). NASA Ames Research Center. pp. 1–7. Archived (PDF) from the original on 2016-03-05.
  56. ↑ Muller R, Wittmer A, Drax C, eds. (2014). Aviation Risk and Safety Management: Methods and Applications In Aviation Organizations. Springer International. ISBN   978-3-319-02779-1.
  57. ↑ O'Connor PE, Cohn JV, eds. (2010). Human Performance Enhancement in High-Risk Environments: Insights, Developments, and Future Directions from Military Research. ABC-CLIO. ISBN   978-0-313-35983-5.
  58. ↑ Barral C, Rodríguez-Cintas L, Martínez-Luna N, Bachiller D, Pérez-Pazos J, Alvarós J, Casas M, Roncero C (March 2016). "Reliability of the Beck Depression Inventory in opiate-dependent patients". Journal of Substance Abuse. 21 (2): 128–132. doi:10.3109/14659891.2014.980859. S2CID   71642211.
  59. 1 2 "The Student's Guide To Managing Stress". AffordableCollegesOnline.org. Red Ventures Company. 11 April 2023.
  60. ↑ Zaleski EH, Levey-Thors C, Schiaffino KM (1998). "Coping Mechanisms, Stress, Social Support, and Health Problems in College Students". Applied Developmental Science. 2 (3): 127–137. doi:10.1207/s1532480xads0203_2.
  61. ↑ Dyson R, Renk K (October 2006). "Freshmen adaptation to university life: depressive symptoms, stress, and coping". Journal of Clinical Psychology. 62 (10): 1231–1244. doi:10.1002/jclp.20295. PMID   16810671. S2CID   20374373.
  62. ↑ Penley JA, Tomaka J, Wiebe JS (December 2002). "The association of coping to physical and psychological health outcomes: a meta-analytic review". Journal of Behavioral Medicine. 25 (6): 551–603. doi:10.1023/a:1020641400589. PMID   12462958. S2CID   27649585.
  63. 1 2 3 Brougham RR, Zail CM, Mendoza CM, Miller JR (2009). "Stress, sex differences, and coping strategies among college students". Current Psychology. 28 (2): 85–97. doi:10.1007/s12144-009-9047-0. S2CID   18784775.
  64. ↑ Welle PD, Graf HM (2011). "Effective lifestyle habits and coping strategies for stress tolerance among college students". American Journal of Health Education. 42 (2): 96–105. doi:10.1080/19325037.2011.10599177. S2CID   17099952.
  65. 1 2 3 "Managing Stress". Campus Mind Works. Regents of the University of Michigan. 2018.
  66. ↑ Carver CS. The Handbook of Stress Science: Biology, Psychology and Health. New York, NY: Springer Publishing Company.
  67. ↑ Cheng ST, Tsui PK, Lam JH (February 2015). "Improving mental health in health care practitioners: randomized controlled trial of a gratitude intervention". Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology. 83 (1): 177–186. doi:10.1037/a0037895. PMID   25222798.
  68. ↑ Waterson L (16 October 2018). "Stress and Alcohol Use Among College Students: What Are the Real Dangers". Alta Mira Recovery Programs.
  69. ↑ "The College Student's Guide to Stress Management". Purdue University Global. March 2019.
  70. ↑ Shoss MK, Hunter EM, Penney LM (2016-03-14). "Avoiding the issue: Disengagement coping style and the personality–CWB link". Human Performance. 29 (2): 106–122. doi:10.1080/08959285.2016.1148036. ISSN   0895-9285. S2CID   147082374.
  71. ↑ Hall NC, Chipperfield JG, Perry RP, Ruthig JC, Goetz T (2006). "Primary and secondary control in academic development: gender-specific implications for stress and health in college students". Anxiety, Stress, & Coping. 19 (2): 189–210. doi:10.1080/10615800600581168. S2CID   13667123.
  72. ↑ Baghurst, Timothy; Kelley, Betty C. (May 2014). "An Examination of Stress in College Students Over the Course of a Semester". Health Promotion Practice. 15 (3): 438–447. doi:10.1177/1524839913510316. ISSN   1524-8399. PMID   24231633.
  73. ↑ Desai, Veeral; Gupta, Arnav; Andersen, Lucas; Ronnestrand, Bailey; Wong, Michael (2021). "Stress-Reducing Effects of Playing a Casual Video Game among Undergraduate Students". Trends in Psychology. 29 (3): 563–579. doi:10.1007/s43076-021-00062-6. ISSN   2358-1883. PMC   7952082 .
This page is based on this Wikipedia article
Text is available under the CC BY-SA 4.0 license; additional terms may apply.
Images, videos and audio are available under their respective licenses.