Fight-or-flight response

Last updated
Cat and dog standoff (3926784260).jpg
Dog and cat showing fight or flight responses.jpg
A dog and a cat expressing the fight (top) and flight (bottom) response simultaneously.

The fight-or-flight or the fight-flight-freeze-or-fawn [1] (also called hyperarousal or the acute stress response) is a physiological reaction that occurs in response to a perceived harmful event, attack, or threat to survival. [2] It was first described by Walter Bradford Cannon. [lower-alpha 1] [3] His theory states that animals react to threats with a general discharge of the sympathetic nervous system, preparing the animal for fighting or fleeing. [4] More specifically, the adrenal medulla produces a hormonal cascade that results in the secretion of catecholamines, especially norepinephrine and epinephrine. [5] The hormones estrogen, testosterone, and cortisol, as well as the neurotransmitters dopamine and serotonin, also affect how organisms react to stress. [6] The hormone osteocalcin might also play a part. [7] [8]

Contents

This response is recognised as the first stage of the general adaptation syndrome that regulates stress responses among vertebrates and other organisms. [9]

Name

Originally understood as the "fight-or-flight" response in Cannon's research, [3] the state of hyperarousal results in several responses beyond fighting or fleeing. This has led people to calling it the "fight, flight, freeze" response, "fight-flight-freeze-fawn" [1] [ citation needed ] or "fight-flight-faint-or-freeze", among other variants. [10] The wider array of responses, such as freezing, fainting, fleeing, or experiencing fright, [11] has led researchers to use more neutral or accommodating terminology such as "hyperarousal" or the "acute stress response".

Physiology

Autonomic nervous system

The autonomic nervous system is a control system that acts largely unconsciously and regulates heart rate, digestion, respiratory rate, pupillary response, urination, and sexual arousal. This system is the primary mechanism in control of the fight-or-flight response and its role is mediated by two different components: the sympathetic nervous system and the parasympathetic nervous system. [12]

Sympathetic nervous system

The sympathetic nervous system originates in the spinal cord and its main function is to activate the arousal responses that occur during the fight-or-flight response. [13] The sympathetic nervous system transfers signals from the dorsal hypothalamus, which activates the heart, increases vascular resistance, and increases blood flow, especially to the muscle, heart, and brain tissues. [14] It activates the adrenal medulla, releasing catecholamines that amplify the sympathetic response. Additionally, this component of the autonomic nervous system utilizes and activates the release of norepinephrine by the adrenal glands in the reaction. [15]

Parasympathetic nervous system

The parasympathetic nervous system originates in the sacral spinal cord and medulla, physically surrounding the sympathetic origin, and works in concert with the sympathetic nervous system. It is known as the calming portion of the autonomic nervous system. [16] While the sympathetic nervous system is activated, the parasympathetic nervous system decreases its response. Efferent vagal fibers originating from the nucleus ambiguous fire in parallel to the respiratory system, decreasing the vagal cardiac parasympathetic tone. [17] After the fight or flight response, the parasympathetic system's main function is to activate the "rest and digest" response and return the body to homeostasis. This system utilizes and activates the release of the neurotransmitter acetylcholine. [18]

Reaction

The reaction begins in the amygdala, which triggers a neural response in the hypothalamus. The initial reaction is followed by activation of the pituitary gland and secretion of the hormone ACTH. [19] The adrenal gland is activated almost simultaneously, via the sympathetic nervous system, and releases the hormone epinephrine. The release of chemical messengers results in the production of the hormone cortisol, which increases blood pressure, blood sugar, and suppresses the immune system. [20]

The initial response and subsequent reactions are triggered in an effort to create a boost of energy. This boost of energy is activated by epinephrine binding to liver cells and the subsequent production of glucose. [21] Additionally, the circulation of cortisol functions to turn fatty acids into available energy, which prepares muscles throughout the body for response. [22]

Catecholamine hormones, such as adrenaline (epinephrine) or noradrenaline (norepinephrine), facilitate immediate physical reactions associated with a preparation for violent muscular action and: [23]

Function of physiological changes

The physiological changes that occur during the fight or flight response are activated in order to give the body increased strength and speed in anticipation of fighting or running. Some of the specific physiological changes and their functions include: [24] [25] [26]

Emotional components

Emotion regulation

In the context of the fight or flight response, emotional regulation is used proactively to avoid threats of stress or to control the level of emotional arousal. [27] [28]

Emotional reactivity

During the reaction, the intensity of emotion that is brought on by the stimulus will also determine the nature and intensity of the behavioral response. [29] Individuals with higher levels of emotional reactivity may be prone to anxiety and aggression, which illustrates the implications of appropriate emotional reaction in the fight or flight response. [30] [31]

Cognitive components

Content specificity

The specific components of cognitions in the fight or flight response seem to be largely negative. These negative cognitions may be characterised by: attention to negative stimuli, the perception of ambiguous situations as negative, and the recurrence of recalling negative words. [32] There also may be specific negative thoughts associated with emotions commonly seen in the reaction. [33]

Perception of control

Perceived control relates to an individual's thoughts about control over situations and events. [34] Perceived control should be differentiated from actual control because an individual's beliefs about their abilities may not reflect their actual abilities. Therefore, overestimation or underestimation of perceived control can lead to anxiety and aggression. [35]

Social information processing

The social information processing model proposes a variety of factors that determine behavior in the context of social situations and preexisting thoughts. [36] The attribution of hostility, especially in ambiguous situations, seems to be one of the most important cognitive factors associated with the fight or flight response because of its implications towards aggression. [37]

Other animals

Evolutionary perspective

An evolutionary psychology explanation is that early animals had to react to threatening stimuli quickly and did not have time to psychologically and physically prepare themselves. [38] The fight or flight response provided them with the mechanisms to rapidly respond to threats against survival. [39] [40]

Examples

A typical example of the stress response is a grazing zebra. If the zebra sees a lion closing in for the kill, the stress response is activated as a means to escape its predator. The escape requires intense muscular effort, supported by all of the body's systems. The sympathetic nervous system's activation provides for these needs. A similar example involving fight is of a cat about to be attacked by a dog. The cat shows accelerated heartbeat, piloerection (hair standing on end), and pupil dilation, all signs of sympathetic arousal. [23] Note that the zebra and cat still maintain homeostasis in all states.

In July 1992, Behavioral Ecology published experimental research conducted by biologist Lee A. Dugatkin where guppies were sorted into "bold", "ordinary", and "timid" groups based upon their reactions when confronted by a smallmouth bass (i.e. inspecting the predator, hiding, or swimming away) after which the guppies were left in a tank with the bass. After 60 hours, 40 percent of the timid guppies and 15 percent of the ordinary guppies survived while none of the bold guppies did. [41] [42]

Varieties of responses

Bison hunted by dogs Ruseckas-Stumbro medziokle.jpg
Bison hunted by dogs

Animals respond to threats in many complex ways. Rats, for instance, try to escape when threatened but will fight when cornered. Some animals stand perfectly still so that predators will not see them. Many animals freeze or play dead when touched in the hope that the predator will lose interest.

Other animals have alternative self-protection methods. Some species of cold-blooded animals change color swiftly to camouflage themselves. [43] These responses are triggered by the sympathetic nervous system, but, in order to fit the model of fight or flight, the idea of flight must be broadened to include escaping capture either in a physical or sensory way. Thus, flight can be disappearing to another location or just disappearing in place, and fight and flight are often combined in a given situation. [44]

The fight or flight actions also have polarity – the individual can either fight against or flee from something that is threatening, such as a hungry lion, or fight for or fly towards something that is needed, such as the safety of the shore from a raging river.

A threat from another animal does not always result in immediate fight or flight. There may be a period of heightened awareness, during which each animal interprets behavioral signals from the other. Signs such as paling, piloerection, immobility, sounds, and body language communicate the status and intentions of each animal. There may be a sort of negotiation, after which fight or flight may ensue, but which might also result in playing, mating, or nothing at all. An example of this is kittens playing: each kitten shows the signs of sympathetic arousal, but they never inflict real damage.

See also

Notes

  1. ↑ Cannon referred to "the necessities of fighting or flight." in the first edition of Bodily Changes in Pain, Hunger, Fear and Rage (1915), p. 211. Some references say he first described the response in 1914 in The American Journal of Physiology .

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Fear</span> Basic emotion induced by a perceived threat

Fear is an intensely unpleasant emotion in response to perceiving or recognizing a danger or threat. Fear causes physiological changes that may produce behavioral reactions such as mounting an aggressive response or fleeing the threat. Fear in human beings may occur in response to a certain stimulus occurring in the present, or in anticipation or expectation of a future threat perceived as a risk to oneself. The fear response arises from the perception of danger leading to confrontation with or escape from/avoiding the threat, which in extreme cases of fear can be a freeze response.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Hypothalamus</span> Area of the brain below the thalamus

The hypothalamus is a small part of the brain that contains a number of nuclei with a variety of functions. One of the most important functions is to link the nervous system to the endocrine system via the pituitary gland. The hypothalamus is located below the thalamus and is part of the limbic system. It forms the ventral part of the diencephalon. All vertebrate brains contain a hypothalamus. In humans, it is the size of an almond.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Catecholamine</span> Class of chemical compounds

A catecholamine is a monoamine neurotransmitter, an organic compound that has a catechol and a side-chain amine.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Stress (biology)</span> Organisms response to a stressor such as an environmental condition or a stimulus

Stress, whether physiological, biological or psychological, is an organism's response to a stressor such as an environmental condition. Stress is the body's method of reacting to a condition such as a threat, challenge or physical and psychological barrier. There are two hormones that an individual produces during a stressful situation, well known as adrenaline and cortisol. There are two kinds of stress hormone levels. Resting (basal) cortisol levels are normal everyday quantities that are essential for standard functioning. Reactive cortisol levels are increases in cortisol in response to stressors. Stimuli that alter an organism's environment are responded to by multiple systems in the body. In humans and most mammals, the autonomic nervous system and hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis are the two major systems that respond to stress.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Autonomic nervous system</span> Division of the nervous system supplying internal organs, smooth muscle and glands

The autonomic nervous system (ANS), formerly referred to as the vegetative nervous system, is a division of the nervous system that operates internal organs, smooth muscle and glands. The autonomic nervous system is a control system that acts largely unconsciously and regulates bodily functions, such as the heart rate, its force of contraction, digestion, respiratory rate, pupillary response, urination, and sexual arousal. This system is the primary mechanism in control of the fight-or-flight response.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Hypothalamic–pituitary–adrenal axis</span> Set of physiological feedback interactions

The hypothalamic–pituitary–adrenal axis is a complex set of direct influences and feedback interactions among three components: the hypothalamus, the pituitary gland, and the adrenal glands. These organs and their interactions constitute the HPA axis.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Sympathetic nervous system</span> Part of the autonomic nervous system which stimulates fight-or-flight responses

The sympathetic nervous system (SNS) is one of the three divisions of the autonomic nervous system, the others being the parasympathetic nervous system and the enteric nervous system. The enteric nervous system is sometimes considered part of the autonomic nervous system, and sometimes considered an independent system.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Arousal</span> State of being awoken

Arousal is the physiological and psychological state of being awoken or of sense organs stimulated to a point of perception. It involves activation of the ascending reticular activating system (ARAS) in the brain, which mediates wakefulness, the autonomic nervous system, and the endocrine system, leading to increased heart rate and blood pressure and a condition of sensory alertness, desire, mobility, and reactivity.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Chromaffin cell</span> Neuroendocrine cells found in adrenal medulla in mammals

Chromaffin cells, also called pheochromocytes, are neuroendocrine cells found mostly in the medulla of the adrenal glands in mammals. These cells serve a variety of functions such as serving as a response to stress, monitoring carbon dioxide and oxygen concentrations in the body, maintenance of respiration and the regulation of blood pressure. They are in close proximity to pre-synaptic sympathetic ganglia of the sympathetic nervous system, with which they communicate, and structurally they are similar to post-synaptic sympathetic neurons. In order to activate chromaffin cells, the splanchnic nerve of the sympathetic nervous system releases acetylcholine, which then binds to nicotinic acetylcholine receptors on the adrenal medulla. This causes the release of catecholamines. The chromaffin cells release catecholamines: ~80% of adrenaline (epinephrine) and ~20% of noradrenaline (norepinephrine) into systemic circulation for systemic effects on multiple organs, and can also send paracrine signals. Hence they are called neuroendocrine cells.

Psychoneuroimmunology (PNI), also referred to as psychoendoneuroimmunology (PENI) or psychoneuroendocrinoimmunology (PNEI), is the study of the interaction between psychological processes and the nervous and immune systems of the human body. It is a subfield of psychosomatic medicine. PNI takes an interdisciplinary approach, incorporating psychology, neuroscience, immunology, physiology, genetics, pharmacology, molecular biology, psychiatry, behavioral medicine, infectious diseases, endocrinology, and rheumatology.

Acute stress disorder is a psychological response to a terrifying, traumatic or surprising experience. It may bring about delayed stress reactions if not correctly addressed. Acute stress may present in reactions which include but are not limited to: intrusive or dissociative symptoms, and reactivity symptoms such as avoidance or arousal. Reactions may be exhibited for days or weeks after the traumatic event.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Norepinephrine</span> Catecholamine hormone and neurotransmitter

Norepinephrine (NE), also called noradrenaline (NA) or noradrenalin, is an organic chemical in the catecholamine family that functions in the brain and body as a hormone, neurotransmitter and neuromodulator. The name "noradrenaline" is more commonly used in the United Kingdom, whereas "norepinephrine" is usually preferred in the United States. "Norepinephrine" is also the international nonproprietary name given to the drug. Regardless of which name is used for the substance itself, parts of the body that produce or are affected by it are referred to as noradrenergic.

Chronic stress is the physiological or psychological response induced by a long-term internal or external stressor. The stressor, either physically present or recollected, will produce the same effect and trigger a chronic stress response. There is a wide range of chronic stressors, but most entail relatively prolonged problems, conflicts and threats that people encounter on a daily basis. And several chronic stressors, including "neighbourhood environment, financial strain, interpersonal stress, work stress and caregiving.", have been identified as associated with disease and mortality.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Polyvagal theory</span> Proposed constructs pertaining to the vagus nerve

Polyvagal theory (PVT) is a collection of proposed evolutionary, neuroscientific, and psychological constructs pertaining to the role of the vagus nerve in emotion regulation, social connection and fear response. The theory was introduced in 1994 by Stephen Porges. There is consensus among experts that the basic physiological assumptions of the polyvagal theory are untenable. PVT is popular among some clinical practitioners and patients, but it is not endorsed by current social neuroscience.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Adrenaline</span> Hormone and medication

Adrenaline, also known as epinephrine, is a hormone and medication which is involved in regulating visceral functions. It appears as a white microcrystalline granule. Adrenaline is normally produced by the adrenal glands and by a small number of neurons in the medulla oblongata. It plays an essential role in the fight-or-flight response by increasing blood flow to muscles, heart output by acting on the SA node, pupil dilation response, and blood sugar level. It does this by binding to alpha and beta receptors. It is found in many animals, including humans, and some single-celled organisms. It has also been isolated from the plant Scoparia dulcis found in Northern Vietnam.

Voodoo death, a term coined by Walter Cannon in 1942 also known as psychogenic death or psychosomatic death, is the phenomenon of sudden death as brought about by a strong emotional shock, such as fear. The anomaly is recognized as "psychosomatic" in that death is caused by an emotional response—

Neural top–down control of physiology concerns the direct regulation by the brain of physiological functions. Cellular functions include the immune system’s production of T-lymphocytes and antibodies, and nonimmune related homeostatic functions such as liver gluconeogenesis, sodium reabsorption, osmoregulation, and brown adipose tissue nonshivering thermogenesis. This regulation occurs through the sympathetic and parasympathetic system, and their direct innervation of body organs and tissues that starts in the brainstem. There is also a noninnervation hormonal control through the hypothalamus and pituitary (HPA). These lower brain areas are under control of cerebral cortex ones. Such cortical regulation differs between its left and right sides. Pavlovian conditioning shows that brain control over basic cell level physiological function can be learned.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Effects of stress on memory</span> Overview of the effects of stress on memory

The effects of stress on memory include interference with a person's capacity to encode memory and the ability to retrieve information. Stimuli, like stress, improved memory when it was related to learning the subject. During times of stress, the body reacts by secreting stress hormones into the bloodstream. Stress can cause acute and chronic changes in certain brain areas which can cause long-term damage. Over-secretion of stress hormones most frequently impairs long-term delayed recall memory, but can enhance short-term, immediate recall memory. This enhancement is particularly relative in emotional memory. In particular, the hippocampus, prefrontal cortex and the amygdala are affected. One class of stress hormone responsible for negatively affecting long-term, delayed recall memory is the glucocorticoids (GCs), the most notable of which is cortisol. Glucocorticoids facilitate and impair the actions of stress in the brain memory process. Cortisol is a known biomarker for stress. Under normal circumstances, the hippocampus regulates the production of cortisol through negative feedback because it has many receptors that are sensitive to these stress hormones. However, an excess of cortisol can impair the ability of the hippocampus to both encode and recall memories. These stress hormones are also hindering the hippocampus from receiving enough energy by diverting glucose levels to surrounding muscles.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Sympathoadrenal system</span>

The sympathoadrenal system is a physiological connection between the sympathetic nervous system and the adrenal medulla and is crucial in an organism's physiological response to outside stimuli. When the body receives sensory information, the sympathetic nervous system sends a signal to preganglionic nerve fibers, which activate the adrenal medulla through acetylcholine. Once activated, norepinephrine and epinephrine are released directly into the blood by postganglionic nerve fibers where they act as the bodily mechanism for "fight-or-flight" responses. Because of this, the sympathoadrenal system plays a large role in maintaining glucose levels, sodium levels, blood pressure, and various other metabolic pathways that couple with bodily responses to the environment. During numerous diseased states, such as hypoglycemia or even stress, the body's metabolic processes are skewed. The sympathoadrenal system works to return the body to homeostasis through the activation or inactivation of the adrenal gland. However, more severe disorders of the sympathoadrenal system such as Pheochromocytoma can affect the body's ability to maintain a homeostatic state. In these cases, curative agents such as adrenergic agonists and antagonists are used to modify epinephrine and norepinephrine levels released by the adrenal medulla.

Neurocardiology is the study of the neurophysiological, neurological and neuroanatomical aspects of cardiology, including especially the neurological origins of cardiac disorders. The effects of stress on the heart are studied in terms of the heart's interactions with both the peripheral nervous system and the central nervous system.

References

  1. 1 2 Walker, Peter (2013). Complex PTSD: From Surviving to Thriving : a Guide and Map for Recovering from Childhood Trauma. ISBN   9781492871842.
  2. ↑ Cannon, Walter (1932). Wisdom of the Body. United States: W.W. Norton & Company. ISBN   978-0393002058.
  3. 1 2 Walter Bradford Cannon (1915). Bodily changes in pain, hunger, fear, and rage. New York: Appleton-Century-Crofts. p. 211.
  4. ↑ Jansen, A; Nguyen, X; Karpitsky, V; Mettenleiter, M (27 October 1995). "Central Command Neurons of the Sympathetic Nervous System: Basis of the Fight-or-Flight Response". Science Magazine. 5236 (270): 644–6. Bibcode:1995Sci...270..644J. doi:10.1126/science.270.5236.644. PMID   7570024. S2CID   38807605.
  5. ↑ Walter Bradford Cannon (1915). Bodily Changes in Pain, Hunger, Fear and Rage: An Account of Recent Researches into the Function of Emotional Excitement. Appleton-Century-Crofts.
  6. ↑ "Adrenaline, Cortisol, Norepinephrine: The Three Major Stress Hormones, Explained". Huffington Post. April 19, 2014. Retrieved 16 August 2014.
  7. ↑ Kwon, Diana. "Fight or Flight May Be in Our Bones". Scientific American. Retrieved 2020-06-22.
  8. ↑ "Bone, not adrenaline, drives fight or flight response". phys.org. Retrieved 2020-06-22.
  9. ↑ Gozhenko, A; Gurkalova, I.P.; Zukow, W; Kwasnik, Z (2009). PATHOLOGY – Theory. Medical Student's Library. Radom. pp. 270–275.
  10. ↑ Donahue, J.J. (2020). Zeigler-Hill, V.; Shackelford, T.K. (eds.). "Fight-Flight-Freeze System". Encyclopedia of Personality and Individual Differences: 1590–1595. doi:10.1007/978-3-319-24612-3_751. ISBN   978-3-319-24610-9. S2CID   240856695.
  11. ↑ Bracha, H. Stefan (September 2004). "Freeze, Flight, Fight, Fright, Faint: Adaptationist Perspectives on the Acute Stress Response Spectrum" (PDF). CNS Spectrums. 9 (9): 679–685. doi:10.1017/S1092852900001954. PMID   15337864. S2CID   8430710 . Retrieved 31 May 2021.
  12. ↑ Schmidt, A; Thews, G (1989). "Autonomic Nervous System". In Janig, W (ed.). Human Physiology (2 ed.). New York, NY: Springer-Verlag. pp. 333–370.
  13. ↑ Myers, David G.; DeWall, C. Nathan (2021). Psychology (13 ed.). MacMillan Publishing. p. 422.
  14. ↑ Kozlowska, Kasia; Walker, Peter; McLean, Loyola; Carrive, Pascal (2015). "Fear and the Defense Cascade: Clinical Implications and Management". Harvard Review of Psychiatry . 23 (4): 263–287. doi:10.1097/HRP.0000000000000065. ISSN   1067-3229. PMC   4495877 . PMID   26062169.
  15. ↑ Chudler, Eric. "Neuroscience For Kids". University of Washington. Retrieved 19 April 2013.
  16. ↑ Myers, David G.; DeWall, C. Nathan (2021). Psychology (13 ed.). MacMillan Publishing. p. 422.
  17. ↑ Kozlowska, Kasia; Walker, Peter; McLean, Loyola; Carrive, Pascal (2015). "Fear and the Defense Cascade: Clinical Implications and Management". Harvard Review of Psychiatry . 23 (4): 263–287. doi:10.1097/HRP.0000000000000065. ISSN   1067-3229. PMC   4495877 . PMID   26062169.
  18. ↑ Chudler, Eric. "Neuroscience For Kids". University of Washington. Retrieved 19 April 2013.
  19. ↑ Margioris, Andrew; Tsatsanis, Christos (April 2011). "ACTH Action on the Adrenal". Endotext.org. Archived from the original on 6 March 2013. Retrieved 18 April 2013.
  20. ↑ Padgett, David; Glaser, R (August 2003). "How stress influences the immune response". Trends in Immunology. 24 (8): 444–448. CiteSeerX   10.1.1.467.1386 . doi:10.1016/S1471-4906(03)00173-X. PMID   12909458.
  21. ↑ King, Michael. "PATHWAYS: GLYCOGEN & GLUCOSE". Washington University in St. Louis.
  22. ↑ "HOW CELLS COMMUNICATE DURING THE FIGHT OR FLIGHT RESPONSE". University of Utah. Archived from the original on 8 August 2013. Retrieved 18 April 2013.
  23. 1 2 Henry Gleitman, Alan J. Fridlund and Daniel Reisberg (2004). Psychology (6 ed.). W. W. Norton & Company. ISBN   978-0-393-97767-7.
  24. ↑ Stress Management for Health Course. "The Fight Flight Response" . Retrieved 19 April 2013.
  25. ↑ Olpin, Michael. "The Science of Stress". Weber State University. Archived from the original on 2017-11-20. Retrieved 2013-04-25.
  26. ↑ Myers, David G.; DeWall, C. Nathan (2021). Psychology (13 ed.). MacMillan Publishing. p. 422.
  27. ↑ Cistler, Josh; Bunmi O. Olatunji; Matthew T. Feldner; John P. Forsyth (2010). "Emotion Regulation and the Anxiety Disorders: An Integrative Review". Journal of Psychopathology and Behavioral Assessment. 32 (1): 68–82. doi:10.1007/s10862-009-9161-1. PMC   2901125 . PMID   20622981.
  28. ↑ Gross, James (1998). "Sharpening the Focus: Emotion Regulation, Arousal, and Social Competence". Psychological Inquiry. 9 (4): 287–290. doi:10.1207/s15327965pli0904_8.
  29. ↑ Avero, Pedro; Calvo, M (1 July 1999). "Emotional reactivity to social-evaluative stress: genderdifferences in response systems concordance". Personality and Individual Differences. 27 (1): 155–170. doi:10.1016/S0191-8869(98)00229-3.
  30. ↑ Carthy, T; Horesh N; Apter A; Edge MD; Gross JJ (May 2010). "Emotional reactivity and cognitive regulation in anxious children". Behaviour Research and Therapy. 48 (5): 384–393. doi:10.1016/j.brat.2009.12.013. PMID   20089246. S2CID   14382059.
  31. ↑ Valiente, C; Eisenberg N; Smith CL; Reiser M; Fabes RA; Losoya S; Guthrie IK; Murphy BC (December 2003). "The relations of effortful control and reactive control to children's externalising problems: A longitudinal assessment". Personality. 71 (6): 1171–1196. doi:10.1111/1467-6494.7106011. PMID   14633062.
  32. ↑ Reid, Sophie C.; Salmon, Karen; Peter F. Lovibond (October 2006). "Cognitive Biases in Childhood Anxiety, Depression, and Aggression: Are They Pervasive or Specific?". Cognitive Therapy and Research. 30 (5): 531–549. doi:10.1007/s10608-006-9077-y. S2CID   28911747.
  33. ↑ Beck, Aaron (1979). Cognitive Therapy and the Emotional Disorders. United States: Penguin Books.
  34. ↑ Weems, CF; Silverman, WK (April 2006). "An integrative model of control: implications for understanding emotion regulation and dysregulation in childhood anxiety". Journal of Affective Disorders. 91 (2): 113–124. doi:10.1016/j.jad.2006.01.009. PMID   16487599.
  35. ↑ Brendgen, M; Vitaro F; Turgeon L; Poulin F; Wanner B (June 2004). "Is there a dark side of positive illusions? Overestimation of social competence and subsequent adjustment in aggressive and nonaggressive children". Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology. 32 (3): 305–320. doi:10.1023/B:JACP.0000026144.08470.cd. PMID   15228179. S2CID   11239252.
  36. ↑ Crick, Nicki; Dodge, Kenneth (January 1994). "A review and reformulation of social information-processing mechanisms in children's social adjustment". Psychological Bulletin. 115 (1): 74–101. doi:10.1037/0033-2909.115.1.74.
  37. ↑ Dodge, Kenneth (March 1980). "Social cognition and children's aggressive behavior". Journal of Child Development. 51 (1): 162–170. doi:10.2307/1129603. JSTOR   1129603. PMID   7363732.
  38. ↑ Adamo, S. A. (2014-09-01). "The Effects of Stress Hormones on Immune Function May be Vital for the Adaptive Reconfiguration of the Immune System During Fight-or-Flight Behavior". Integrative and Comparative Biology. 54 (3): 419–426. doi: 10.1093/icb/icu005 . ISSN   1540-7063.
  39. ↑ Grohol, John. "What's the purpose of the fight or flight response?" . Retrieved 18 April 2013.
  40. ↑ Goldstein, David; Kopin, I (2007). "Evolution of concepts of stress". Stress. 10 (2): 109–20. doi: 10.1080/10253890701288935 . PMID   17514579. S2CID   25072963.
  41. ↑ Dugatkin, Lee Alan (1992). "Tendency to inspect predators predicts mortality risk in the guppy (Poecilia reticulata)". Behavioral Ecology . Oxford University Press. 3 (2): 125–127. doi:10.1093/beheco/3.2.124 . Retrieved September 9, 2020.
  42. ↑ Nesse, Randolph; Williams, George C. (1994). Why We Get Sick: The New Science of Darwinian Medicine. New York: Vintage Books. p. 213. ISBN   978-0679746744.
  43. ↑ Gill, A.C. (2004). Revision of the Indo-Pacific dottyback fish subfamily Pseudochrominae (Perciformes: Pseudochromidae). Smithiana Monographs. pp. 1–123.
  44. ↑ Singh, J; Aballay, A (April 8, 2019). "Microbial Colonization Activates an Immune Fight-and-Flight Response via Neuroendocrine Signaling". Developmental Cell. 49 (1): 89–99. doi: 10.1016/j.devcel.2019.02.001 . PMC   6456415 . PMID   30827896.

Further reading

This page is based on this Wikipedia article
Text is available under the CC BY-SA 4.0 license; additional terms may apply.
Images, videos and audio are available under their respective licenses.