Sex differences in emotional intelligence

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Emotional intelligence (EI) involves using cognitive and emotional abilities to function in interpersonal relationships, social groups as well as manage one's emotional states. It consists of abilities such as social cognition, empathy and also reasoning about the emotions of others. [1]

Contents

The literature finds women have higher emotional intelligence ability than men based on common ability tests such as the MSCEIT. [2] Physiological measures and behavioral tests also support this finding. [3] [4] [5] [6]

Emotional intelligence

Emotional intelligence (EI) involves using cognitive and emotional abilities to function in interpersonal relationships, social groups as well as manage one's emotional states. A person with high EI ability can perceive, comprehend and express emotion accurately, and also has the ability to access and generate feelings when needed to improve one's self and relationships with others.

Women tend to score higher than men on measures of emotional intelligence, but gender stereotypes of men and women can affect how they express emotions. [7] The sex difference is small to moderate, somewhat inconsistent, and is often influenced by the person's motivations or social environment. [7] Bosson et al. say "physiological measures of emotion and studies that track people in their daily lives find no consistent sex differences in the experience of emotion", which "suggests that women may amplify certain emotional expressions, or men may suppress them". [7]

According to the Four-Branch Model of Emotional Intelligence model, there are four abilities that exist for emotional intelligence: [8] [9]

  1. Perception – the ability to detect and decipher emotions in faces, pictures, voices, and cultural artifact. Also includes the ability to identify one's own emotions. Perceiving emotions represents a basic aspect of emotional intelligence, as it makes all other processing of emotional information possible. [8] [9] [10]
  2. Facilitation – the ability to use emotions for various cognitive activities such as thinking and problem solving as well as interacting with others. An emotionally intelligent person can capitalize fully upon his or her changing moods in order to best fit the task at hand. An example of this includes a person using their emotions to motivate themselves. [8] [9]
  3. Understanding – the ability to process emotion language and understand why someone, including themselves, might feel a certain way. Understanding emotions also encompasses the ability to be sensitive to slight changes between emotions, and the ability to recognize and describe how emotions evolve over time. [8] [9]
  4. Management – the ability to manage one's emotions as well as manage emotional relationship with others. An emotionally intelligent person can also use any type of emotions and apply them in pursuit of a goal. [8] [9]

Tests

Mayer-Salovey-Caruso Emotional Intelligence Test (MSCEIT)

The Mayer-Salovey-Caruso Emotional Intelligence Test (MSCEIT) is used to get emotional intelligence IQs (EIQ). [11] It is the most widely used test for the ability of emotional intelligence (AEI), [12] and is well-validated. [13] Much of the evidence for ability EI is based on the MSCEIT, partly because it was the only test available to measure EI ability. It is also the only omnibus test to measure all four branches of the EI ability model in one standardized assessment. [11] The area scores include experiential EIQ and strategic EIQ. Experiential EIQ includes being able to recognize emotions to compare them to other sensations and their connection to the thought process. [11] Strategic EIQ focuses on the meaning behind emotions, how emotions affect relationships, and how to manage emotions. [11] After area scores, branch scores include four different sections: perceiving emotions, using emotions, understanding emotions, and managing emotions. [11] Using these categories, the test analyzes people's ability to perform tasks and solve emotional problems or situations. [11] No self-perceived assessments are used in the test; it is an objective assessment of a subject's ability to solve emotional problems. [14]

A 2010 meta-analysis published in the Journal of Applied Psychology by researchers Dana L. Joseph and Daniel A. Newman found that women scored higher than men by around half a deviation, which amounts to 6–7 points difference. [3]

Test of Emotional Intelligence (TIE)

The Test of Emotional Intelligence (TIE) focuses on measuring perception and comprehending emotions and the ability to use emotions and manage them. It is considered to be the Polish equivalent of the MSCEIT. [15]

Sex differences

Social cognition

Every day, people use social cognition subconsciously, as it is part of most modern society. Social cognition is an important part of emotional Intelligence and incorporates social skills such as processing facial expressions, body language and other social stimulus. [16]

A 2012 review published in the journal Neuropsychologia found that women are better at recognizing facial effects, expression processing and emotions in general. [6] Men were only better at recognizing specific behaviour which includes anger, aggression and threatening cues. [6]

In 2014, a meta-analysis of 215 study sample by researcher A.E. Johnson and D Voyeur in the journal Cognition and Emotion found overall female advantage in emotional recognition. [4]

Two 2015 reviews published in the journal Emotion review also found that adult women are more emotionally expressive, [17] [18] but that the size of this gender difference varies with the social and emotional context. Researchers distinguish three factors that predict the size of gender differences in emotional expressiveness: gender-specific norms, social role and situational constraints, and emotional intensity. [18]

Empathy

A 2014 meta-analysis, in Cognition and Emotion, found overall female advantage in non-verbal emotional recognition. [4]

A 2014 analysis from the journal Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews also found that there are sex differences in empathy from birth, [5] growing larger with age and which remains consistent and stable across lifespan. Females, on average, were found to have higher empathy than males at all ages, and children with higher empathy regardless of gender continue to possess high empathy throughout development in life. Further analysis of brain tools such as event related potentials found that females who viewed human suffering had higher ERP waveforms than males, an indication of greater empathetic response. Another investigation with similar brain tools such as N400 amplitudes found higher N400 in females in response to social situations which then positively correlated with self-reported empathy. Structural fMRI studies have also found females to have larger grey matter volumes in posterior inferior frontal and anterior inferior parietal cortex areas which have been correlated with mirror neurons indicated by the fMRI literature. Mirror neurons are crucial for many if not most aspects of empathy. Females were also found to have a stronger link between emotional and cognitive empathy. The researchers use The Primary Caretaker Hypothesis to explain the stability of these sex differences in development. According to the hypothesis, prehistoric males did not have the same selective pressure as women and this led to sex differences in emotion recognition and empathy. [5]

See also

Related Research Articles

Emotional intelligence (EI) is defined as the ability to perceive, use, understand, manage, and handle emotions. People with high emotional intelligence can recognize their own emotions and those of others, use emotional information to guide thinking and behavior, discern between different feelings and label them appropriately, and adjust emotions to adapt to environments.

Human intelligence is the intellectual capability of humans, which is marked by complex cognitive feats and high levels of motivation and self-awareness. Using their intelligence, humans are able to learn, form concepts, understand, and apply logic and reason. Human intelligence is also thought to encompass our capacities to recognize patterns, plan, innovate, solve problems, make decisions, retain information, and use language to communicate.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Empathy</span> Capacity to understand or feel what another person is experiencing

Empathy is generally described as the ability to take on another's perspective, to understand, feel and possibly share and respond to their experience. There are more definitions of empathy that include but is not limited to social, cognitive, and emotional processes primarily concerned with understanding others. Often times, empathy is considered to be a broad term, and broken down into more specific concepts and types that include cognitive empathy, emotional empathy, somatic empathy, and spiritual empathy.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Face perception</span> Cognitive process of visually interpreting the human face

Facial perception is an individual's understanding and interpretation of the face. Here, perception implies the presence of consciousness and hence excludes automated facial recognition systems. Although facial recognition is found in other species, this article focuses on facial perception in humans.

In psychology, theory of mind refers to the capacity to understand other people by ascribing mental states to them. A theory of mind includes the knowledge that others' beliefs, desires, intentions, emotions, and thoughts may be different from one's own. Possessing a functional theory of mind is crucial for success in everyday human social interactions. People utilise a theory of mind when analyzing, judging, and inferring others' behaviors. The discovery and development of theory of mind primarily came from studies done with animals and infants. Factors including drug and alcohol consumption, language development, cognitive delays, age, and culture can affect a person's capacity to display theory of mind. Having a theory of mind is similar to but not identical with having the capacity for empathy or sympathy.

Sex differences in psychology are differences in the mental functions and behaviors of the sexes and are due to a complex interplay of biological, developmental, and cultural factors. Differences have been found in a variety of fields such as mental health, cognitive abilities, personality, emotion, sexuality, and tendency towards aggression. Such variation may be innate, learned, or both. Modern research attempts to distinguish between these causes and to analyze any ethical concerns raised. Since behavior is a result of interactions between nature and nurture, researchers are interested in investigating how biology and environment interact to produce such differences, although this is often not possible.

An emotional expression is a behavior that communicates an emotional state or attitude. It can be verbal or nonverbal, and can occur with or without self-awareness. Emotional expressions include facial movements like smiling or scowling, simple behaviors like crying, laughing, or saying "thank you," and more complex behaviors like writing a letter or giving a gift. Individuals have some conscious control of their emotional expressions; however, they need not have conscious awareness of their emotional or affective state in order to express emotion.

The empathising–systemising (E–S) theory is a theory on the psychological basis of autism and male–female neurological differences originally put forward by English clinical psychologist Simon Baron-Cohen. It classifies individuals based on abilities in empathic thinking (E) and systematic thinking (S). It measures skills using an Empathy Quotient (EQ) and Systemising Quotient (SQ) and attempts to explain the social and communication symptoms in autism spectrum disorders as deficits and delays in empathy combined with intact or superior systemising.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Variability hypothesis</span> Hypothesis that males have more variance in certain traits compared to females

The variability hypothesis, also known as the greater male variability hypothesis, is the hypothesis that males generally display greater variability in traits than females do.

Emotional responsivity is the ability to acknowledge an affective stimuli by exhibiting emotion. It is a sharp change of emotion according to a person's emotional state. Increased emotional responsivity refers to demonstrating more response to a stimulus. Reduced emotional responsivity refers to demonstrating less response to a stimulus. Any response exhibited after exposure to the stimulus, whether it is appropriate or not, would be considered as an emotional response. Although emotional responsivity applies to nonclinical populations, it is more typically associated with individuals with schizophrenia and autism.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Neuroscience of sex differences</span> Characteristics of the brain that differentiate the male brain and the female brain

The neuroscience of sex differences is the study of characteristics that separate the male and female brains. Psychological sex differences are thought by some to reflect the interaction of genes, hormones, and social learning on brain development throughout the lifespan.

Empathy quotient (EQ) is a psychological self-report measure of empathy developed by Simon Baron-Cohen and Sally Wheelwright at the Autism Research Centre at the University of Cambridge. EQ is based on a definition of empathy that includes cognition and affect.

Although there are many physiological and psychological gender differences in humans, memory, in general, is fairly stable across the sexes. By studying the specific instances in which males and females demonstrate differences in memory, we are able to further understand the brain structures and functions associated with memory.

Bullying is abusive social interaction between peers can include aggression, harassment, and violence. Bullying is typically repetitive and enacted by those who are in a position of power over the victim. A growing body of research illustrates a significant relationship between bullying and emotional intelligence.

Sex differences in human intelligence have long been a topic of debate among researchers and scholars. It is now recognized that there are no significant sex differences in general intelligence, though particular subtypes of intelligence vary somewhat between sexes.

The study of the relationship between gender and emotional expression is the study of the differences between men and women in behavior that expresses emotions. These differences in emotional expression may be primarily due to cultural expectations of femininity and masculinity.

Sex differences in cognition are widely studied in the current scientific literature. Biological and genetic differences in combination with environment and culture have resulted in the cognitive differences among males and females. Among biological factors, hormones such as testosterone and estrogen may play some role mediating these differences. Among differences of diverse mental and cognitive abilities, the largest or most well known are those relating to spatial abilities, social cognition and verbal skills and abilities.

In psychology, interpersonal accuracy (IPA) refers to an individual's ability to make correct inferences about others’ internal states, traits, or other personal attributes. For example, a person who is able to correctly recognize emotions, motivation, or thoughts in others demonstrates interpersonal accuracy. IPA is an important skill in everyday life and is related to many positive social interaction outcomes.

The gender empathy gap is the claim that people are likely to feel more empathy for one gender than another gender in a similar situation. Many studies show that females have an on average advantage in tests of empathy.

An empathy gap, sometimes referred to as an empathy bias, is a breakdown or reduction in empathy where it might otherwise be expected to occur. Empathy gaps may occur due to a failure in the process of empathizing or as a consequence of stable personality characteristics, and may reflect either a lack of ability or motivation to empathize.

References

  1. ↑ Mayer JD, Roberts RD, Barsade SG (2008). "Human abilities: emotional intelligence". Annual Review of Psychology . 59 (1): 507–36. doi:10.1146/annurev.psych.59.103006.093646. PMID   17937602. S2CID   11801336.
  2. ↑ Barrett, Lisa Feldman; Lewis, Michael; Haviland-Jones, Jeannette M. (2016). Handbook of Emotions, Fourth Edition. Guilford Publications. p. 379. ISBN   978-1-46-252536-2.
  3. 1 2 Joseph DL, Newman DA (January 2010). "Emotional intelligence: an integrative meta-analysis and cascading model". The Journal of Applied Psychology. 95 (1): 54–78. doi:10.1037/a0017286. PMID   20085406. S2CID   11238077.
  4. 1 2 3 Thompson AE, Voyer D (2014-01-01). "Sex differences in the ability to recognise non-verbal displays of emotion: a meta-analysis". Cognition & Emotion. 28 (7): 1164–95. doi:10.1080/02699931.2013.875889. PMID   24400860. S2CID   5402395.
  5. 1 2 3 Christov-Moore L, Simpson EA, Coudé G, Grigaityte K, Iacoboni M, Ferrari PF (October 2014). "Empathy: gender effects in brain and behavior". Neuroscience and Biobehavioral Reviews. 46 (4): 604–27. doi:10.1016/j.neubiorev.2014.09.001. PMC   5110041 . PMID   25236781.
  6. 1 2 3 Kret ME, De Gelder B (June 2012). "A review on sex differences in processing emotional signals". Neuropsychologia. 50 (7): 1211–21. doi:10.1016/j.neuropsychologia.2011.12.022. PMID   22245006. S2CID   11695245.
  7. 1 2 3 Bosson, Jennifer K.; Buckner, Camille E.; Vandello, Joseph A. (2021). The Psychology of Sex and Gender. Sage Publications. p. 330. ISBN   978-1-54-439403-9.
  8. 1 2 3 4 5 Mayer, John D.; Roberts, Richard D.; Barsade, Sigal G. (2008). "Human Abilities: Emotional Intelligence". Annual Review of Psychology . 59 (1): 507–536. doi:10.1146/annurev.psych.59.103006.093646. PMID   17937602. S2CID   11801336.[ verification needed ]
  9. 1 2 3 4 5 Fiori, Marina; Antonietti, Jean-Philippe; Mikolajczak, Moira; Luminet, Olivier; Hansenne, Michel; Rossier, Jérôme (2014-06-05). "What Is the Ability Emotional Intelligence Test (MSCEIT) Good for? An Evaluation Using Item Response Theory". PLOS ONE. 9 (6): e98827. Bibcode:2014PLoSO...998827F. doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0098827 . ISSN   1932-6203. PMC   4046984 . PMID   24901541.[ verification needed ]
  10. ↑ Hildebrandt, Andrea; Sommer, Werner; Schacht, Annekathrin; Wilhelm, Oliver (2015-05-01). "Perceiving and remembering emotional facial expressions — A basic facet of emotional intelligence". Intelligence. 50: 52–67. doi:10.1016/j.intell.2015.02.003.[ verification needed ]
  11. 1 2 3 4 5 6 Fiori, Marina; Vesely-Maillefer, Ashley K. (2018). "Emotional Intelligence as an Ability: Theory, Challenges, and New Directions". Emotional Intelligence in Education. The Springer Series on Human Exceptionality. Springer. pp. 23–47. doi:10.1007/978-3-319-90633-1_2. ISBN   978-3-319-90633-1. S2CID   149528965.
  12. ↑ Pool, Lorraine Dacre; Qualter, Pamela (2018). An Introduction to Emotional Intelligence. John Wiley & Sons. p. 53. ISBN   978-1-11-911442-0.
  13. ↑ Dukes, Daniel; Samson, Andrea; Walle, Eric (2022). The Oxford Handbook of Emotional Development. Oxford University Press. p. 470. ISBN   978-0-19-259793-9.
  14. ↑ Zumbo, Bruno D.; Hubley, Anita M. (2017). Understanding and Investigating Response Processes in Validation Research. Springer. p. 25. ISBN   978-3-31-956129-5.
  15. ↑ Kaliská, Lada; Pellitteri, John (2021). Eastern European Perspectives on Emotional Intelligence: Current Developments and Research. Routledge. p. 222. ISBN   978-1-00-034685-5.
  16. ↑ Frith CD (June 2008). "Social cognition". Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London. Series B, Biological Sciences. 363 (1499): 2033–9. doi:10.1098/rstb.2008.0005. PMC   2375957 . PMID   18292063.
  17. ↑ Chaplin TM (January 2015). "Gender and Emotion Expression: A Developmental Contextual Perspective". Emotion Review. 7 (1): 14–21. doi:10.1177/1754073914544408. PMC   4469291 . PMID   26089983.
  18. 1 2 Fischer A, LaFrance M (2015-01-01). "What Drives the Smile and the Tear: Why Women Are More Emotionally Expressive Than Men". Emotion Review. 7 (1): 22–29. doi:10.1177/1754073914544406. ISSN   1754-0739. S2CID   147007218.
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