Sexual attraction

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The Flirtation (1904), by Eugene de Blaas Eugen de Blaas The Flirtation.jpg
The Flirtation (1904), by Eugene de Blaas

Sexual attraction is attraction on the basis of sexual desire or the quality of arousing such interest. [1] Sexual attractiveness or sex appeal is an individual's ability to attract other people sexually, and is a factor in sexual selection or mate choice. The attraction can be to the physical or other qualities or traits of a person, or to such qualities in the context where they appear. The attraction may be to a person's aesthetics, movements, voice, among other things. The attraction may be enhanced by a person's body odor, sex pheromones, adornments, clothing, perfume or hair style. It can be influenced by individual genetic, psychological, or cultural factors, or to other, more amorphous qualities. Sexual attraction is also a response to another person that depends on a combination of the person possessing the traits and on the criteria of the person who is attracted.

Contents

Though attempts have been made to devise objective criteria of sexual attractiveness and measure it as one of several bodily forms of capital asset (e.g. erotic capital), a person's sexual attractiveness is to a large extent a subjective measure dependent on another person's interest, perception, and sexual orientation. For example, a gay or lesbian person would typically find a person of the same sex to be more attractive than one of the other sex. A bisexual person would find either sex to be attractive. Asexuality refers to those who do not experience sexual attraction for either sex, though they may have romantic attraction or a non-directed libido. [2] Interpersonal attraction includes factors such as physical or psychological similarity, familiarity or possessing a preponderance of common or familiar features, similarity, complementarity, reciprocal liking, and reinforcement. [3]

The ability of a person's physical and other qualities to create a sexual interest in others is the basis of their use in advertising, film, and other visual media, as well as in modeling and other occupations. In evolutionary terms, the ovulatory shift hypothesis posits that female humans exhibit different sexual behaviours and desires at points in their menstrual cycle, as a means to ensure that they attract a high quality mate to copulate with during their most fertile time. Hormone levels throughout the menstrual cycle affect a woman's overt behaviours, influencing the way a woman presents herself to others during stages of her menstrual cycle, in an attempt to attract high quality mates the closer the woman is to ovulation. [4]

Social and biological factors

Human sexuality has many aspects. In biology, sexuality describes the reproductive mechanism and the basic biological drive that exists in all sexually reproducing species and can encompass sexual intercourse and sexual contact in all its forms. There are also emotional and physical aspects of sexuality. These relate to the bond between individuals, which may be expressed through profound feelings or emotions. Sociologically, it can cover the cultural, political, and legal aspects; philosophically, it can span the moral, ethical, theological, spiritual, and religious aspects.

Which aspects of a person's sexuality attract another is influenced by cultural factors; it has varied over time, as well as personal factors. Influencing factors may be determined more locally among sub-cultures, across sexual fields, or simply by the preferences of the individual. These preferences come about as a result of a complex variety of genetic, psychological, and cultural factors.

A person's physical appearance has a critical impact on their sexual attractiveness. This involves the impact one's appearance has on the senses, especially in the beginning of a relationship, among them:

As with other animals, pheromones may have an impact, though less significantly in the case of humans. Theoretically, the "wrong" pheromone may cause someone to be disliked, even when they would otherwise appear attractive. Frequently, a pleasant-smelling perfume is used to encourage the other person to more deeply inhale the air surrounding its wearer,[ citation needed ] increasing the probability that the individual's pheromones will be inhaled. The importance of pheromones in human relationships is probably limited and is widely disputed,[ unreliable source? ] [5] although it appears to have some scientific basis. [6]

Some people exhibit high levels of sexual fetishism and are sexually stimulated by other stimuli not normally associated with sexual arousal. The degree to which such fetishism exists or has existed in different cultures is controversial.

Pheromones have been determined to play a role in sexual attraction between people. They influence gonadal hormone secretion, for example, follicle maturation in the ovaries in females and testosterone and sperm production in males. [7]

High anxiety

Research conducted by Donald G. Dutton and Arthur P. Aron in the 1970s aimed to find the relation between sexual attraction and high anxiety conditions. In doing so, 85 male participants were contacted by an attractive female interviewer at either a fear-arousing suspension bridge or a normal bridge. Conclusively, it was shown that the male participants who were asked by the female interviewer to perform the thematic apperception test (TAT) on the fear-arousing bridge, wrote more sexual content in the stories and attempted, with greater effort, to contact the interviewer after the experiment than those participants who performed the TAT on the normal bridge. In another test, a male participant, chosen from a group of 80, was given anticipated shocks. With him was an attractive female confederate, who was also being shocked. The experiment showed that the male's sexual imagery in the TAT was much higher when self shock was anticipated and not when the female confederate shock was anticipated. [8]

Enhancement

People consciously or subconsciously enhance their sexual attractiveness or sex appeal for a number of reasons. It may be to attract someone with whom they can form a deeper relationship, for companionship, procreation, or an intimate relationship, besides other possible purposes. It can be part of a courtship process. This can involve physical aspects or interactive processes whereby people find and attract potential partners, and maintain a relationship. These processes, which involve attracting a partner and maintaining sexual interest, can include flirting, which can be used to attract the sexual attention of another to encourage romance or sexual relations, and can involve body language, conversation, joking, or brief physical contact. [9]

Sex and sexuality differences

Men have been found to have a greater interest in uncommitted sex compared to women. [10] Some research shows this interest to be more sociological than biological. [11] Men have a greater interest in visual sexual stimuli than women. However, [12] additional trends have been found with a greater sensitivity to partner status in women choosing a sexual partner and men placing a greater emphasis on physical attractiveness in a potential mate, as well as a significantly greater tendency toward sexual jealousy in men and emotional jealousy in women. [13]

Bailey, Gaulin, Agyei, and Gladue (1994) analyzed whether these results varied according to sexual orientation. In general, they found biological sex played a bigger role in the psychology of sexual attraction than orientation. However, there were some differences between homosexual and heterosexual women and men on these factors. While gay and straight men showed similar psychological interest in casual sex on markers of sociosexuality, gay men showed a larger number of partners in behaviour expressing this interest (proposed to be due to a difference in opportunity). Self-identified lesbian women showed a significantly greater interest in visual sexual stimuli than heterosexual women and judged partner status to be less important in romantic partnerships. Heterosexual men had a significantly greater preference for younger partners than homosexual men. [14] People who identify as asexual may not be sexually attracted to anyone. Gray asexuality includes those who only experience sexual attraction under certain circumstances; for example, exclusively after an emotional bond has been formed. This tends to vary from person to person.

Sexual preferences and hormones

The ovulatory shift hypothesis is the theory that female humans tend to exhibit different sexual behaviours and desires at points in their cycle. Two meta-analyses published in 2014 reached opposing conclusions on whether the existing evidence was robust enough to support the prediction that women's mate preferences change across the cycle. [15] [16] A newer 2018 review does not show women changing the type of men they desire at different times in their fertility cycle. [17]

In males, a masculine face has been positively correlated with fewer respiratory diseases and, as a consequence, masculine features offer a marker of health and reproductive success. [18]

Ovulation and ornamentation

Hormone levels throughout the menstrual cycle affect a woman's behaviour in preferences and in their overt behaviours. The ornamentation effect is a phenomenon influenced by a stage of the menstrual cycle which refers to the way a woman presents herself to others, in a way to attract potential sexual partners. Studies have found that the closer women were to ovulation, the more provocatively they dress and the more attractive they are rated. [19]

It is possible that women are sensitive to the changes in their physical attractiveness throughout their cycles, such that at their most fertile stages their levels of attractiveness are increased. Consequently, they choose to display their increased levels of attractiveness through this method of ornamentation. [20]

During periods of hormonal imbalance, women exhibit a peak in sexual activity. [21] As these findings have been recorded for female-initiated sexual activity and not for male-initiated activity, the causation appears to be hormonal changes during the menstrual cycle. [21]

Research has also found that menstrual cycles affect sexual behaviour frequency in pre-menopausal women. For example, women who had weekly sexual intercourse with men had menstrual cycles with the average duration of 29 days, while women with less frequent sexual interactions tended to have more extreme cycle lengths. [22]

Male response to ovulation

Changes in hormones during a female's cycles affect the way she behaves and the way males behave towards her. Research has found that men are a lot more attentive and loving towards their partners when they are in the most fertile phase of their cycles, in comparison to when they are in the luteal phases. [23] Men become increasingly jealous and possessive over their partners during this stage. [24]

See also

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Pheromone</span> Secreted or excreted chemical factor that triggers a social response in members of the same species

A pheromone is a secreted or excreted chemical factor that triggers a social response in members of the same species. Pheromones are chemicals capable of acting like hormones outside the body of the secreting individual, to affect the behavior of the receiving individuals. There are alarm pheromones, food trail pheromones, sex pheromones, and many others that affect behavior or physiology. Pheromones are used by many organisms, from basic unicellular prokaryotes to complex multicellular eukaryotes. Their use among insects has been particularly well documented. In addition, some vertebrates, plants and ciliates communicate by using pheromones. The ecological functions and evolution of pheromones are a major topic of research in the field of chemical ecology.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Ovulation</span> Release of egg cells from the ovaries

Ovulation is the release of egg cells from the ovaries as part of the ovarian cycle for most vertebrates. In women, this event occurs at the end of the follicular phase, when the ovarian follicles rupture and release the secondary oocyte ovarian cells.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Concealed ovulation</span> Lack of visible changes in ovulating females

Concealed ovulation or hidden estrus in a species is the lack of any perceptible change in an adult female when she is fertile and near ovulation. Some examples of perceptible changes are swelling and redness of the vulva in baboons and bonobos, and pheromone release in the feline family. In contrast, the females of humans and a few other species that undergo hidden estrus have few external signs of fecundity, making it difficult for a mate to consciously deduce, by means of external signs only, whether or not a female is near ovulation.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Physical attractiveness</span> Aesthetic assessment of physical traits

Physical attractiveness is the degree to which a person's physical features are considered aesthetically pleasing or beautiful. The term often implies sexual attractiveness or desirability, but can also be distinct from either. There are many factors which influence one person's attraction to another, with physical aspects being one of them. Physical attraction itself includes universal perceptions common to all human cultures such as facial symmetry, sociocultural dependent attributes, and personal preferences unique to a particular individual.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Psychological adaptation</span> Psychological theory

A psychological adaptation is a functional, cognitive or behavioral trait that benefits an organism in its environment. Psychological adaptations fall under the scope of evolved psychological mechanisms (EPMs), however, EPMs refer to a less restricted set. Psychological adaptations include only the functional traits that increase the fitness of an organism, while EPMs refer to any psychological mechanism that developed through the processes of evolution. These additional EPMs are the by-product traits of a species’ evolutionary development, as well as the vestigial traits that no longer benefit the species’ fitness. It can be difficult to tell whether a trait is vestigial or not, so some literature is more lenient and refers to vestigial traits as adaptations, even though they may no longer have adaptive functionality. For example, xenophobic attitudes and behaviors, some have claimed, appear to have certain EPM influences relating to disease aversion, however, in many environments these behaviors will have a detrimental effect on a person's fitness. The principles of psychological adaptation rely on Darwin's theory of evolution and are important to the fields of evolutionary psychology, biology, and cognitive science.

Human male sexuality encompasses a wide variety of feelings and behaviors. Men's feelings of attraction may be caused by various physical and social traits of their potential partner. Men's sexual behavior can be affected by many factors, including evolved predispositions, individual personality, upbringing, and culture. While most men are heterosexual, there are minorities of homosexual men and varying degrees of bisexual men.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Estratetraenol</span> Chemical compound

Estratetraenol, also known as estra-1,3,5(10),16-tetraen-3-ol, is an endogenous steroid found in women that has been described as having pheromone-like activities in primates, including humans. Estratetraenol is synthesized from androstadienone by aromatase likely in the ovaries, and is related to the estrogen sex hormones, yet has no known estrogenic effects. It was first identified from the urine of pregnant women.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Sexual selection in humans</span> Evolutionary effects of sexual selection on humans

Sexual selection in humans concerns the concept of sexual selection, introduced by Charles Darwin as an element of his theory of natural selection, as it affects humans. Sexual selection is a biological way one sex chooses a mate for the best reproductive success. Most compete with others of the same sex for the best mate to contribute their genome for future generations. This has shaped human evolution for many years, but reasons why humans choose their mates are not fully understood. Sexual selection is quite different in non-human animals than humans as they feel more of the evolutionary pressures to reproduce and can easily reject a mate. The role of sexual selection in human evolution has not been firmly established although neoteny has been cited as being caused by human sexual selection. It has been suggested that sexual selection played a part in the evolution of the anatomically modern human brain, i.e. the structures responsible for social intelligence underwent positive selection as a sexual ornamentation to be used in courtship rather than for survival itself, and that it has developed in ways outlined by Ronald Fisher in the Fisherian runaway model. Fisher also stated that the development of sexual selection was "more favourable" in humans.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Odor</span> Volatile chemical compounds perceived by the sense of smell

An odor or odour is a smell or a scent caused by one or more volatilized chemical compounds generally found in low concentrations that humans and many animals can perceive via their olfactory system. While smell can refer to pleasant and unpleasant odors, the terms scent, aroma, and fragrance are usually reserved for pleasant-smelling odors and are frequently used in the food and cosmetic industry to describe floral scents or to refer to perfumes.

Odour is sensory stimulation of the olfactory membrane of the nose by a group of molecules. Certain body odours are connected to human sexual attraction. Humans can make use of body odour subconsciously to identify whether a potential mate will pass on favourable traits to their offspring. Body odour may provide significant cues about the genetic quality, health and reproductive success of a potential mate.

Menstruation is the shedding of the uterine lining (endometrium). It occurs on a regular basis in uninseminated sexually reproductive-age females of certain mammal species.

Mate preferences in humans refers to why one human chooses or chooses not to mate with another human and their reasoning why. Men and women have been observed having different criteria as what makes a good or ideal mate. A potential mate's socioeconomic status has also been seen important, especially in developing areas where social status is more emphasized.

Sexual motivation is influenced by hormones such as testosterone, estrogen, progesterone, oxytocin, and vasopressin. In most mammalian species, sex hormones control the ability and motivation to engage in sexual behaviours.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Sexual swelling</span> Swelling of genital and perineal skin in some mammals as a sign of fertility

Sexual swelling, sexual skin, or anogenital tumescence refers to localized engorgement of the anus and vulva region of some female primates that vary in size over the course of the menstrual cycle. Thought to be an honest signal of fertility, male primates are attracted to these swellings; preferring, and competing for, females with the largest swellings.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Human mating strategies</span> Courtship behavior of humans

In evolutionary psychology and behavioral ecology, human mating strategies are a set of behaviors used by individuals to select, attract, and retain mates. Mating strategies overlap with reproductive strategies, which encompass a broader set of behaviors involving the timing of reproduction and the trade-off between quantity and quality of offspring.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Extended female sexuality</span>

Extended female sexuality is where the female of a species mates despite being infertile. In most species, the female only engages in copulation when she is fertile. However, extended sexuality has been documented in Old World primates, pair bonded birds and some insects. Extended sexuality is most prominent in human females who exhibit no change in copulation rate across the ovarian cycle.

Female intrasexual competition is competition between women over a potential mate. Such competition might include self-promotion, derogation of other women, and direct and indirect aggression toward other women. Factors that influence female intrasexual competition include the genetic quality of available mates, hormone levels, and interpersonal dynamics.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Mate guarding in humans</span> Behaviours used to retain a mate

Human mate guarding refers to behaviours employed by both males and females with the aim of maintaining reproductive opportunities and sexual access to a mate. It involves discouraging the current mate from abandoning the relationship whilst also warding off intrasexual rivals. It has been observed in many non-human animals, as well as humans. Sexual jealousy is a prime example of mate guarding behaviour. Both males and females use different strategies to retain a mate and there is evidence that suggests resistance to mate guarding also exists.

No study has led to the isolation of true human sex pheromones, although various researchers have investigated the possibility of their existence.

The ovulatory shift hypothesis holds that women experience evolutionarily adaptive changes in subconscious thoughts and behaviors related to mating during different parts of the ovulatory cycle. It suggests that what women want, in terms of men, changes throughout the menstrual cycle. Two meta-analyses published in 2014 reached opposing conclusions on whether the existing evidence was robust enough to support the prediction that women's mate preferences change across the cycle. A newer 2018 review does not show women changing the type of men they desire at different times in their fertility cycle.

References

  1. ↑ "Sexual attraction". TheFreeDictionary.com. Archived from the original on March 31, 2012. Retrieved December 16, 2011.
  2. ↑ "Things That Are Not Asexuality". Asexuality Archive. May 27, 2012. Archived from the original on April 21, 2019. Retrieved December 16, 2015.
  3. ↑ Miller, Rowland S.; Perlman, Daniel; Brehm, Sharon S. (2007). Intimate Relationships (4th ed.). McGraw-Hill. ISBN   9780072938012.[ page needed ]
  4. ↑ Pillsworth, Elizabeth G.; Haselton, Martie G.; Buss, David M. (February 2004). "Ovulatory Shifts in Female Sexual Desire" (PDF). Journal of Sex Research. 41 (1): 55–65. doi:10.1080/00224490409552213. PMID   15216424. S2CID   26680290.[ dead link ]
  5. ↑ Adams, Cecil (January 30, 1987). "Will pheromones make you irresistible to the opposite sex?". The Straight Dope. Archived from the original on August 21, 2008. Retrieved November 30, 2006.
  6. ↑ Graham, Sarah (August 29, 2001). "First Evidence of a Human Response to Pheromones". ScientificAmerican. Archived from the original on March 9, 2014. Retrieved November 30, 2006.
  7. ↑ Grammer, Karl; Fink, Bernhard; Neave, Nick (2005). "Human pheromones and sexual attraction" (PDF). European Journal of Obstetrics & Gynecology and Reproductive Biology. 118 (2): 135–142. doi:10.1016/j.ejogrb.2004.08.010. PMID   15653193. Archived from the original (PDF) on July 26, 2019. Retrieved September 19, 2018.
  8. ↑ Dutton, Donald G; Arthur P. Aron (1974). "Some evidence for heightened sexual attraction under conditions of high anxiety". Journal of Personality and Social Psychology. 30 (4): 510–517. CiteSeerX   10.1.1.335.100 . doi:10.1037/h0037031. PMID   4455773. S2CID   31921849.
  9. ↑ SIRC Guide to Flirting. What Social Science can tell you about flirting and how to do it. Archived 2020-12-17 at the Wayback Machine Retrieved October 13, 2009.
  10. ↑ Buss, D. M., & Shmitt, D. P. (1993). "Sexual strategies theory: A contextual evolutionary analysis of human mating". Psychological Review: 100, 204–232.
  11. ↑ Conley, T. D. (2011). "Perceived proposer personality characteristics and gender differences in acceptance of casual sex offers". Journal of Personality and Social Psychology. 100 (2): 309–329. doi:10.1037/a0022152. PMID   21171789.
  12. ↑ Ellis, B.J.; Symons, D. (1990). "Sex differences in sexual fantasy: An evolutionary psychological approach". Journal of Sex Research. 27 (4): 527–555. doi:10.1080/00224499009551579.
  13. ↑ Wiederman, M. W.; Allgeier, E. R. (1992). "Gender differences in mate selection criteria: Sociobiological or socioeconomic explanation?". Ethology and Sociobiology. 13 (2): 115–124. doi:10.1016/0162-3095(92)90021-u.
  14. ↑ Bailey, J.M.; Gaulin, S.; Agyei, Y.; Gladue, B. (1994). "Effects of gender and sexual orientation on evolutionarily relevant aspects of human mating psychology". Journal of Personality and Social Psychology. 66 (6): 1081–1093. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.66.6.1081. PMID   8046578.
  15. ↑ Gildersleeve, Kelly; Haselton, Martie G.; Fales, Melissa R. (2014). "Do women's mate preferences change across the ovulatory cycle? A meta-analytic review". Psychological Bulletin (Meta-analysis). 140 (5): 1205–1259. doi:10.1037/a0035438. PMID   24564172.
  16. ↑ Wood, Wendy; Kressel, Laura; Joshi, Priyanka D.; Louie, Brian (2014). "Meta-analysis of menstrual cycle effects on women's mate preferences". Emotion Review. 6 (3): 229–249. doi:10.1177/1754073914523073. S2CID   4641508.
  17. ↑ Jones, Benedict C.; Hahn, Amanda C.; Debruine, Lisa M. (2019). "Ovulation, Sex Hormones, and Women's Mating Psychology" (PDF). Trends in Cognitive Sciences (Review). 23 (1): 51–62. doi:10.1016/j.tics.2018.10.008. PMID   30477896. S2CID   53715304. Archived (PDF) from the original on November 28, 2022. Retrieved December 19, 2021.
  18. ↑ Thornhill, Randy; Gangestad, Steven W. (March 2006). "Facial sexual dimorphism, developmental stability, and susceptibility to disease in men and women" (PDF). Evolution and Human Behavior. 27 (2): 131–144. Bibcode:2006EHumB..27..131T. doi:10.1016/j.evolhumbehav.2005.06.001. Archived (PDF) from the original on December 3, 2016. Retrieved December 2, 2016.
  19. ↑ Haselton, Martie G.; Mortezaie, Mina; Pillsworth, Elizabeth G.; Bleske-Rechek, April; Frederick, David A. (January 1, 2007). "Ovulatory shifts in human female ornamentation: Near ovulation, women dress to impress". Hormones and Behavior. 51 (1): 40–45. doi:10.1016/j.yhbeh.2006.07.007. PMID   17045994. S2CID   9268718.
  20. ↑ Haselton, Martie G.; Gangestad, Steven W. (April 1, 2006). "Conditional expression of women's desires and men's mate guarding across the ovulatory cycle". Hormones and Behavior. 49 (4): 509–518. doi:10.1016/j.yhbeh.2005.10.006. ISSN   0018-506X. PMID   16403409. S2CID   7065777.
  21. 1 2 Adams, D. B.; Gold, A. R.; Burt, B. A. (1978). "Rise in female-initiated sexual activity at ovulation and its suppression by oral contraceptives". The New England Journal of Medicine. 299 (21): 1145–1150. doi:10.1056/nejm197811232992101. PMID   703805.
  22. ↑ Cutler, Winnifred B.; Garcia, Celso R.; Freiger, Abba (December 1978). "Sexual Behaviour Frequency and menstrual cycle length in mature premenopausal women". Psychoneuroendocrinology. 4 (4): 297–309. doi:10.1016/0306-4530(79)90014-3. PMID   523588. S2CID   1553727.
  23. ↑ Pillsworth, Elizabeth G.; Haselton, Martie G. (July 1, 2006). "Male sexual attractiveness predicts differential ovulatory shifts in female extra-pair attraction and male mate retention". Evolution and Human Behavior. 27 (4): 247–258. Bibcode:2006EHumB..27..247P. doi:10.1016/j.evolhumbehav.2005.10.002. ISSN   1090-5138.
  24. ↑ Gangestad, Steven W; Thornhill, Randy; Garver, Christine E (May 7, 2002). "Changes in women's sexual interests and their partners' mate-retention tactics across the menstrual cycle: evidence for shifting conflicts of interest". Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences. 269 (1494): 975–982. doi:10.1098/rspb.2001.1952. ISSN   0962-8452. PMC   1690982 . PMID   12028782.

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