Sex differences in humans

Last updated

Sex differences in humans have been studied in a variety of fields. Sex determination generally occurs by the presence or absence of a Y chromosome in the 23rd pair of chromosomes in the human genome. Phenotypic sex refers to an individual's sex as determined by their internal and external genitalia and expression of secondary sex characteristics. [1]

Contents

Sex differences generally refer to traits that are sexually dimorphic. A subset of such differences is hypothesized to be the product of the evolutionary process of sexual selection. [2] [3]

Medicine

Sex differences in medicine include sex-specific diseases, which are diseases that occur only in people of one sex; and sex-related diseases, which are diseases that are more usual to one sex, or which manifest differently in each sex. For example, certain autoimmune diseases may occur predominantly in one sex, for unknown reasons. 90% of primary biliary cirrhosis cases are women, whereas primary sclerosing cholangitis is more common in men. Gender-based medicine, also called "gender medicine", is the field of medicine that studies the biological and physiological differences between the human sexes and how that affects differences in disease. Traditionally, medical research has mostly been conducted using the male body as the basis for clinical studies. Similar findings are also reported in the sport medicine literature where males typically account for >60% of the individuals studied. [4] The findings of these studies have often been applied across the sexes and healthcare providers have assumed a uniform approach in treating both male and female patients. More recently, medical research has started to understand the importance of taking the sex into account as the symptoms and responses to medical treatment may be very different between sexes. [5]

Neither concept should be confused with sexually transmitted infections, which are infections that have a significant probability of transmission through sexual contact.

Sex-related illnesses have various causes:[ citation needed ]

Physiology

Sex differences in human physiology are distinctions of physiological characteristics associated with either male or female humans. These can be of several types, including direct and indirect, direct being the direct result of differences prescribed by the Y-chromosome (due to the SRY gene), and indirect being characteristics influenced indirectly (e.g., hormonally) by the Y-chromosome. Sexual dimorphism is a term for the genotypic and phenotypic differences between males and females of the same species.

Through the process of meiosis and fertilization (with rare exceptions), each individual is created with zero or one Y-chromosome. The complementary result for the X-chromosome follows, either a double or a single X. Therefore, direct sex differences are usually binary in expression, although the deviations in more complex biological processes produce a variety of exceptions.

Indirect sex differences are general differences as quantified by empirical data and statistical analysis. Most differing characteristics will conform to a bell-curve (i.e., normal) distribution which can be broadly described by the mean (peak distribution) and standard deviation (indicator of size of range). Often only the mean or mean difference between sexes is given. This may or may not preclude overlap in distributions. For example, males are, on average, taller than females, [6] but an individual female could be taller than an individual male. The extents of these differences vary across societies. [7] [ improper synthesis? ] Sexual dimorphism for specific traits in humans can also vary between population groups, which may be due to a variety of factors such as environmental influences, genetic variation or hormonal effects. [8] [9] [10] [11]

The most obvious differences between males and females include all the features related to reproductive roles, notably the endocrine (hormonal) systems and their physiological and behavioral effects, including gonadal differentiation, internal and external genital and breast differentiation, and differentiation of muscle mass, height, and hair distribution. There are also differences in the structure of specific areas of the brain. For example, on average, the SDN (INAH3 in humans) has been repeatedly found to be considerably larger in males than in females. [12] A brain study done by the NIH showed that the females had greater volume in the prefrontal cortex, orbitofrontal cortex, superior temporal cortex, lateral parietal cortex, and insula, whereas males had greater volume in the ventral temporal and occipital regions. [13]

Psychology

Research on biological sex differences in human psychology investigates cognitive and behavioral differences between men and women. This research employs experimental tests of cognition, which take a variety of forms. Tests focus on possible differences in areas such as IQ, spatial reasoning, aggression, emotion, and brain structure and function.

Chromosomal makeup is important in human psychology. Females normally have two X chromosomes while males typically have an X and a Y chromosome. The X chromosome is more active and encodes more information than the Y chromosome, which has been shown to affect behavior. [14] Genetic researchers theorize that the X chromosome may contain a gene influencing social behaviours. [15] [ better source needed ]

Most IQ tests are constructed so that there are no overall score differences between females and males. Areas where differences have been found include verbal and mathematical ability. [16] [17] IQ tests that measure fluid g and have not been constructed to eliminate sex differences also tend to show that sex differences are either non-existent or negligible. [17] [18] 2008 research found that, for grades 2 to 11, there were no significant gender differences in math skills among the general population. [19] Differences in variability of IQ scores have been observed in studies, with more men falling at the extremes of the spectrum. [20] [21]

Because social and environmental factors affect brain activity and behavior, where differences are found, it can be difficult for researchers to assess whether or not the differences are innate. Some studies showing that differences are due to socially assigned roles (nurture), while other studies show that differences are due to inherent differences (natural or innate). [22] Studies on this topic explore the possibility of social influences on how both sexes perform in cognitive and behavioral tests. Stereotypes about differences between men and women have been shown to affect a person's behavior (this is called stereotype threat). [23] [24]

In his book titled Gender, Nature, and Nurture, psychologist Richard Lippa found that there were large differences in women's and men's preferences for realistic occupations (for example, mechanic or carpenters) and moderate differences in their preferences for social and artistic occupations. His results also found that women tend to be more people-oriented and men more thing-oriented. [25]

Hartung & Widiger (1998) found that many kinds of mental illnesses and behavioral problems show gender differences in prevalence and incidence. "Of the 80 disorders diagnosed in adulthood for which sex ratios are provided, 35 are said to be more common in men than in women (17 of which are substance related or a paraphilia), 31 are said to be more common in women than men, and 14 are said to be equally common in both sexes." [26]

Differences in male and female jealousy can also be observed. While female jealousy is more likely to be inspired by emotional infidelity, male jealousy is most likely to be brought on by sexual infidelity. A clear majority of approximately 62% to 86% of women reported that they would be more bothered by emotional infidelity and 47% to 60% of men reported that they would be more bothered by sexual infidelity. [27]

In 2005, Janet Shibley Hyde from the University of Wisconsin-Madison introduced the gender similarities hypothesis, which suggests that males and females are similar on most, but not all, psychological variables. The research focused on cognitive variables (for example, reading comprehension, mathematics), communication (for example, talkativeness, facial expressions), social and personality (for example, aggression, sexuality), psychological well-being, and motor behaviors. Using results from a review of 46 meta-analyses, she found that 78% of gender differences were small or close to zero. A few exceptions were some motor behaviors (such as throwing distance) and some aspects of sexuality (such as attitudes about casual sex), which show the largest gender differences. She concludes her article by stating: "It is time to consider the costs of overinflated claims of gender differences. Arguably, they cause harm in numerous realms, including women’s opportunities in the workplace, couple conflict and communication, and analyses of self-esteem problems among adolescents." [28] Hyde also stated elsewhere that "variations within genders are greater than variations between genders." [29] However, another paper argued that the gender similarities hypothesis was untestable as currently formulated because it does not provide a metric for the psychological importance of relevant dimensions, nor a rule for counting dimensions; a small number of relevant differences may be more significant than a massive number of trivial similarities. [30]

In 2011, Irina Trofimova found a significant female advantage in time on the lexical task and on the temperament scale of social-verbal tempo, and a male advantage on the temperament scale of physical endurance which were more pronounced in young age groups and faded in older groups. She suggested that there is a "middle age – middle sex" effect: sex differences in these two types of abilities observed in younger groups might be entangled with age and hormonal changes. The study concluded that a one-dimensional approach to sex differences (common in meta-analytic studies) therefore overlooks a possible interaction of sex differences with age. [31] This hormones-based "middle age-middle sex effect", and also specifics of the few psychological sex differences (verbal and physical) were analysed in terms of the systemic evolutional tendencies driving sex dimorphism. [32] [33]

In 2021, Lise Eliot et al found no difference in overall male/female abilities in verbal, spatial or emotion processing. [34]

Behavior

Crime

Statistics have been consistent in reporting that men commit more criminal acts than women. [35] [36] Self-reported delinquent acts are also higher for men than women across many different actions. [37] Many professionals have offered explanations for this sex difference. Some differing explanations include men's evolutionary tendency toward risk and violent behavior, sex differences in activity, social support, and gender inequality. In particular, Lee Ellis' evolutionary neuroandrogenic theory posits that sexual selection has led to increased exposure to testosterone in males, causing greater competitive behavior which could lead to criminality. [38]

Despite the difficulty of interpreting them, crime statistics may provide a way to investigate such a relationship from a gender differences perspective. An observable difference in crime rates between men and women might be due to social and cultural factors, crimes going unreported, or to biological factors (for example, testosterone or sociobiological theories). Taking the nature of the crime itself into consideration may also be a factor. Crime can be measured by such data as arrest records, imprisonment rates, and surveys. However, not all crimes are reported or investigated. Moreover, some studies show that men can have an overwhelming bias against reporting themselves to be the victims of a crime (particularly when victimized by a woman), and some studies have argued that men reporting intimate partner violence find disadvantageous biases in law enforcement. [39] [40] [41] Burton et al. (1998) found that low levels of self control are associated with criminal activity. [42]

Education

A world map showing countries by gender education disparity, 2010 Map3.7Education Discrepancy compressed.jpg
A world map showing countries by gender education disparity, 2010

Sometimes and in some places, there are sex differences in educational achievement. This may be caused by sex discrimination in law or culture, or may reflect natural differences in the interests of the sexes. [43]

Leadership

Research has been undertaken to examine whether or not there are sex differences in leadership. Leadership positions continue to be dominated by men. [44] [45] [46] [47] Women were rarely seen in senior leadership positions leading to a lack of data on how they behave in such positions. [48] The two main lines of research contradict one another, the first being that there are significant sex differences in leadership and the second being that gender does not have an effect on leadership.

Women and men have been surveyed by Gallup each year concerning workplace topics. When questioned about preferences of a female boss or a male boss, women chose a preference for a male boss 39% of the time, compared to 26% of men displaying preference for a male boss. Only 27% of women would prefer a boss of the same gender. [49] This preference, among both sexes, for male leadership in the workplace has continued unabated for sixty years according to Gallup surveys.

Religion

Sex differences in religion can be classified as either "internal" or "external". Internal religious issues are studied from the perspective of a given religion, and might include religious beliefs and practices about the roles and rights of men and women in government, education and worship; beliefs about the sex or gender of deities and religious figures; and beliefs about the origin and meaning of human gender. External religious issues can be broadly defined as an examination of a given religion from an outsider's perspective, including possible clashes between religious leaders and laity; [50] and the influence of, and differences between, religious perspectives on social issues. For example, various religious perspectives have either endorsed or condemned alternative family structures, homosexual relationships, and abortion. [51] External religious issues can also be examined from the "lens of gender" perspective embraced by some in feminism or critical theory and its offshoots.

Social capital

Sex differences in social capital are differences between men and women in their ability to coordinate actions and achieve their aims through trust, norms and networks. [52] Social capital is often seen as the missing link in development; as social networks facilitate access to resources and protect the commons, while cooperation makes markets work more efficiently. [53] Social capital has been thought of as women's capital as whereas there are gendered barriers to accessing economic capital, women's role in family, and community ensures that they have strong networks. There is potential that the concept can help to bring women's unpaid 'community and household labor', [54] vital to survival and development, to the attention of economists. However, research analyzing social capital from a gendered perspective is rare, and the notable exceptions are very critical. [55] [56] [57]

Suicide

Sex differences in suicide have been shown to be significant; there are highly asymmetric rates of suicide and suicide attempts between males and females. [58] The gap, also called the gender paradox of suicidal behavior, can vary significantly between different countries. [59] Statistics demonstrate that males die much more often by means of suicide than females do. [60] [61] [62]

Financial risk-taking

Sex differences in financial decision making are relevant and significant. Numerous studies have found that women tend to be financially more risk-averse than men and hold safer portfolios. [63] [64] A May 3, 2015 article in the Wall Street Journal by Georgette Jasen reported that "when it comes to investing, men sometimes have their way of doing things, and women have different ways." [65] Scholarly research has documented systematic differences in financial decisions such as buying investments versus insurance, donating to ingroups versus outgroups (such as terrorism victims in Iraq versus the United States), spending in stores, [66] and the endowment effect-or asking price for goods people have. [67]

See also

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Sex</span> Trait that determines an organisms sexually reproductive function

Sex is the biological trait that determines whether a sexually reproducing organism produces male or female gametes. During sexual reproduction, a male and a female gamete fuse to form a zygote, which develops into an offspring that inherits traits from each parent. By convention, organisms that produce smaller, more mobile gametes are called male, while organisms that produce larger, non-mobile gametes are called female. An organism that produces both types of gamete is hermaphrodite.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Sexual orientation</span> Pattern of romantic or sexual attraction

Sexual orientation is an enduring personal pattern of romantic attraction or sexual attraction to persons of the opposite sex or gender, the same sex or gender, or to both sexes or more than one gender. Patterns are generally categorized under heterosexuality, homosexuality, and bisexuality, while asexuality is sometimes identified as the fourth category.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Biology and sexual orientation</span> Field of sexual orientation research

The relationship between biology and sexual orientation is a subject of on-going research. While scientists do not know the exact cause of sexual orientation, they theorize that it is caused by a complex interplay of genetic, hormonal, and environmental influences. However, evidence is weak for hypotheses that the post-natal social environment impacts sexual orientation, especially for males.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Sexual dimorphism</span> Evolved difference in sex-specific characteristics

Sexual dimorphism is the condition where sexes of the same species exhibit different morphological characteristics, including characteristics not directly involved in reproduction. The condition occurs in most dioecious species, which consist of most animals and some plants. Differences may include secondary sex characteristics, size, weight, color, markings, or behavioral or cognitive traits. Male-male reproductive competition has evolved a diverse array of sexually dimorphic traits. Aggressive utility traits such as "battle" teeth and blunt heads reinforced as battering rams are used as weapons in aggressive interactions between rivals. Passive displays such as ornamental feathering or song-calling have also evolved mainly through sexual selection. These differences may be subtle or exaggerated and may be subjected to sexual selection and natural selection. The opposite of dimorphism is monomorphism, when both biological sexes are phenotypically indistinguishable from each other.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Sexual fantasy</span> Class of mental image or pattern of thought

A sexual fantasy or erotic fantasy is an autoerotic mental image or pattern of thought that stirs a person's sexuality and can create or enhance sexual arousal. A sexual fantasy can be created by the person's imagination or memory, and may be triggered autonomously or by external stimulation such as erotic literature or pornography, a physical object, or sexual attraction to another person. Anything that may give rise to sexual arousal may also produce a sexual fantasy, and sexual arousal may in turn give rise to fantasies.

Sociosexuality, sometimes called sociosexual orientation, is the individual difference in the willingness to engage in sexual activity outside of a committed relationship. Individuals who are more restricted sociosexually are less willing to engage in casual sex; they prefer greater love, commitment and emotional closeness before having sex with romantic partners. Individuals who are more unrestricted sociosexually are more willing to have casual sex and are more comfortable engaging in sex without love, commitment or closeness.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Sexual differentiation</span> Embryonic development of sex differences

Sexual differentiation is the process of development of the sex differences between males and females from an undifferentiated zygote. Sex determination is often distinct from sex differentiation; sex determination is the designation for the development stage towards either male or female, while sex differentiation is the pathway towards the development of the phenotype.

Sex differences in psychology are differences in the mental functions and behaviors of the sexes and are due to a complex interplay of biological, developmental, and cultural factors. Differences have been found in a variety of fields such as mental health, cognitive abilities, personality, emotion, sexuality, friendship, and tendency towards aggression. Such variation may be innate, learned, or both. Modern research attempts to distinguish between these causes and to analyze any ethical concerns raised. Since behavior is a result of interactions between nature and nurture, researchers are interested in investigating how biology and environment interact to produce such differences, although this is often not possible.

Sex differences in crime are differences between men and women as the perpetrators or victims of crime. Such studies may belong to fields such as criminology, sociobiology, or feminist studies. Despite the difficulty of interpreting them, crime statistics may provide a way to investigate such a relationship from a gender differences perspective. An observable difference in crime rates between men and women might be due to social and cultural factors, crimes going unreported, or to biological factors. The nature or motive of the crime itself may also require consideration as a factor. Gendered profiling might affect the reported crime rates.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Sex differences in human physiology</span>

Sex differences in human physiology are distinctions of physiological characteristics associated with either male or female humans. These differences are caused by the effects of the different sex chromosome complement in males and females, and differential exposure to gonadal sex hormones during development. Sexual dimorphism is a term for the phenotypic difference between males and females of the same species.

Human male sexuality encompasses a wide variety of feelings and behaviors. Men's feelings of attraction may be caused by various physical and social traits of their potential partner. Men's sexual behavior can be affected by many factors, including evolved predispositions, individual personality, upbringing, and culture. While most men are heterosexual, there are minorities of homosexual men and varying degrees of bisexual men.

Gender incongruence is the state of having a gender identity that does not correspond to one's sex assigned at birth. This is experienced by people who identify as transgender or transsexual, and often results in gender dysphoria. The causes of gender incongruence have been studied for decades.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Man</span> Male adult human

A man is an adult male human. Before adulthood, a male human is referred to as a boy.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Sexual selection in humans</span> Evolutionary effects of sexual selection on humans

Sexual selection in humans concerns the concept of sexual selection, introduced by Charles Darwin as an element of his theory of natural selection, as it affects humans. Sexual selection is a biological way one sex chooses a mate for the best reproductive success. Most compete with others of the same sex for the best mate to contribute their genome for future generations. This has shaped human evolution for many years, but reasons why humans choose their mates are not fully understood. Sexual selection is quite different in non-human animals than humans as they feel more of the evolutionary pressures to reproduce and can easily reject a mate. The role of sexual selection in human evolution has not been firmly established although neoteny has been cited as being caused by human sexual selection. It has been suggested that sexual selection played a part in the evolution of the anatomically modern human brain, i.e. the structures responsible for social intelligence underwent positive selection as a sexual ornamentation to be used in courtship rather than for survival itself, and that it has developed in ways outlined by Ronald Fisher in the Fisherian runaway model. Fisher also stated that the development of sexual selection was "more favourable" in humans.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Neuroscience and sexual orientation</span> Mechanisms of sexual orientation development in humans

Sexual orientation is an enduring pattern of romantic or sexual attraction to persons of the opposite sex or gender, the same sex or gender, or to both sexes or more than one gender, or none of the aforementioned at all. The ultimate causes and mechanisms of sexual orientation development in humans remain unclear and many theories are speculative and controversial. However, advances in neuroscience explain and illustrate characteristics linked to sexual orientation. Studies have explored structural neural-correlates, functional and/or cognitive relationships, and developmental theories relating to sexual orientation in humans.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Prenatal hormones and sexual orientation</span> Hormonal theory of sexuality

The hormonal theory of sexuality holds that, just as exposure to certain hormones plays a role in fetal sex differentiation, such exposure also influences the sexual orientation that emerges later in the individual. Prenatal hormones may be seen as the primary determinant of adult sexual orientation, or a co-factor.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Sexual arousal</span> Physiological and psychological changes in preparation for sexual intercourse

Sexual arousal describes the physiological and psychological responses in preparation for sexual intercourse or when exposed to sexual stimuli. A number of physiological responses occur in the body and mind as preparation for sexual intercourse, and continue during intercourse. Male arousal will lead to an erection, and in female arousal, the body's response is engorged sexual tissues such as nipples, clitoris, vaginal walls, and vaginal lubrication.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Neuroscience of sex differences</span> Characteristics of the brain that differentiate the male brain and the female brain

The neuroscience of sex differences is the study of characteristics that separate brains of different sexes. Psychological sex differences are thought by some to reflect the interaction of genes, hormones, and social learning on brain development throughout the lifespan. A 2021 meta-synthesis led by Lise Eliot found that sex accounted for 1% of the brain's structure or laterality, finding large group-level differences only in total brain volume. A subsequent 2021 led by Camille Michèle Williams contradicted Eliot's conclusions, finding that sex differences in total brain volume are not accounted for merely by sex differences in height and weight, and that once global brain size is taken into account, there remain numerous regional sex differences in both directions. A 2022 follow-up meta-analysis led by Alex DeCasien analyzed the studies from both Eliot and Williams, concluding that "The human brain shows highly reproducible sex differences in regional brain anatomy above and beyond sex differences in overall brain size" and that these differences are of a "small-moderate effect size." A review from 2006 and a meta-analysis from 2014 found that some evidence from brain morphology and function studies indicates that male and female brains cannot always be assumed to be identical from either a structural or functional perspective, and some brain structures are sexually dimorphic.

Sex differences in cognition are widely studied in the current scientific literature. Biological and genetic differences in combination with environment and culture have resulted in the cognitive differences among males and females. Among biological factors, hormones such as testosterone and estrogen may play some role mediating these differences. Among differences of diverse mental and cognitive abilities, the largest or most well known are those relating to spatial abilities, social cognition and verbal skills and abilities.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Health survival paradox</span> Sociological medical phenomenon

The male-female health survival paradox, also known as the morbidity-mortality paradox or gender paradox, is the phenomenon in which female humans experience more medical conditions and disability during their lives, but live longer than males. The observation that females experience greater morbidity (diseases) but lower mortality (death) in comparison to males is paradoxical since it is expected that experiencing disease increases the likelihood of death. However, in this case, the part of the population that experiences more disease and disability is the one that lives longer.

References

  1. ↑ Purves D, Augustine GJ, Fitzpatrick D. "What is Sex?". Neuroscience (2nd ed.). Sinauer Associates . Retrieved 2019-05-09.
  2. ↑ Mealey, L. (2000). Sex differences. NY: Academic Press.[ ISBN missing ]
  3. ↑ Geary, D. C. (2009) Male, Female: The Evolution of Human Sex Differences. Washington, D.C.: American Psychological Association[ ISBN missing ]
  4. ↑ Costello JT, Bieuzen F, Bleakley CM (2014-01-01). "Where are all the female participants in Sports and Exercise Medicine research?" (PDF). European Journal of Sport Science. 14 (8): 847–851. doi:10.1080/17461391.2014.911354. ISSN   1536-7290. PMID   24766579. S2CID   22394634.
  5. ↑ Cuozzo, Karen, Bratman, Steven (reviewer) (September 2005). "Women, Men, and Medicine: We're Not Equal". EBSCO Publishing. Archived from the original on July 10, 2006.
  6. ↑ Gustafsson A, Lindenfors P (2004). "Human size evolution: no allometric relationship between male and female stature". Journal of Human Evolution. 47 (4): 253–266. doi:10.1016/j.jhevol.2004.07.004. PMID   15454336.
  7. ↑ Birke, Lydia. The Gender and Science Reader ed. Muriel Lederman and Ingrid Bartsch. New York, Routledge, 2001. 306–322
  8. ↑ Kleisner, Karel, Petr Tureček, S. Craig Roberts, Jan Havlíček, Jaroslava Varella Valentova, Robert Mbe Akoko, Juan David Leongómez, Silviu Apostol, Marco AC Varella, and S. Adil Saribay. "How and why patterns of sexual dimorphism in human faces vary across the world." Scientific reports 11, no. 1 (2021): 5978.
  9. ↑ Scott, Isabel M., Andrew P. Clark, Steven C. Josephson, Adam H. Boyette, Innes C. Cuthill, Ruby L. Fried, Mhairi A. Gibson et al. "Human preferences for sexually dimorphic faces may be evolutionarily novel." Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 111, no. 40 (2014): 14388-14393.
  10. ↑ Kryst, Łukasz, Magdalena Żegleń, Małgorzata Kowal, Agnieszka Woronkowicz, Parasmani Dasgupta, Rana Saha, Rituparna Das, and Sukanta Das. "Sexual dimorphism of body proportions and composition among 16–19-year-olds from South Asia (India) and Central Europe (Poland)." Anthropologischer Anzeiger 78, no. 3 (2021).
  11. ↑ Eveleth, Phyllis B. "Differences between ethnic groups in sex dimorphism of adult height." Annals of human biology 2, no. 1 (1975): 35-39.
  12. ↑ Savic I, Garcia-Falgueras A, Swaab DF (2010-01-01). "Sexual differentiation of the human brain in relation to gender identity and sexual orientation". Sex Differences in the Human Brain, their Underpinnings and Implications (PDF). Progress in Brain Research. Vol. 186. pp. 41–62. doi:10.1016/B978-0-444-53630-3.00004-X. hdl:20.500.11755/c2c649ef-4f57-472e-94fc-2e686c53c57b. ISBN   978-0444536303. ISSN   1875-7855. PMID   21094885.
  13. ↑ "Sex differences in brain anatomy". National Institutes of Health (NIH). 2020-07-27. Retrieved 2023-03-27.
  14. ↑ Tanoyouye E (June 28, 1996). "Heredity Theory Says Intelligence in Males is 'Like Mother, Like Son'". Wall Street Journal: B1.
  15. ↑ Langreth R (1997). "Hey guys, for your next party, try borrowing women's genes". Wall Street Journal.
  16. ↑ Neisser U, Boodoo G, Bouchard TJ Jr, Boykin AW, Brody N, Ceci SJ, Halpern DF, Loehlin JC, Perloff R, Sternberg RJ, Urbina S (1996). "Intelligence: Knowns and unknowns". American Psychologist. 51 (2): 77–101. doi:10.1037/0003-066X.51.2.77.
  17. 1 2 Nisbett RE, Aronson J, Blair C, Dickens W, Flynn J, Halpern DF, Turkheimer E (2012). "Intelligence: New findings and theoretical developments". American Psychologist. 67 (2): 130–159. doi:10.1037/a0026699. PMID   22233090.
  18. ↑ Colom R, Juan-Espinosa M, Abad F, García Ĺ (2000). "Negligible Sex Differences in General Intelligence". Intelligence. 28: 57–68. doi:10.1016/S0160-2896(99)00035-5.
  19. ↑ Hyde JS, Lindberg, S. M., Linn, M. C., Ellis, A. B., Williams, C. C. (July 2008). "DIVERSITY: Gender Similarities Characterize Math Performance". Science. 321 (5888): 494–495. doi:10.1126/science.1160364. PMID   18653867. S2CID   28135226.
  20. ↑ Machin, S., Pekkarinen, T. (2008). "Global Sex Differences in Test Score Variability". Science. 322 (5906): 1331–1332. doi:10.1126/science.1162573. PMID   19039123. S2CID   38847707.
  21. ↑ Hedges LV, Nowell, Amy (1995). "Sex Differences in Mental Test Scores, Variability, and Numbers of High-Scoring Individuals". Science. 269 (5220): 41–45. Bibcode:1995Sci...269...41H. doi:10.1126/science.7604277. PMID   7604277.
  22. ↑ Hirst G (March 1982). "An Evaluation of Evidence for Innate Sex Differences in Linguistic Ability". Journal of Psycholinguistic Research. 11 (2): 95–113. doi:10.1007/BF01068214. PMID   7143277. S2CID   15913796 – via Springer Link.
  23. ↑ Fine C (2010). Delusions of Gender: How Our Minds, Society, and Neurosexism Create Difference. W. W. Norton. ISBN   978-0393068382.[ page needed ]
  24. ↑ Ann M. Gallagher, James C. Kaufman, Gender differences in mathematics: an integrative psychological approach, Cambridge University Press, 2005, ISBN   978-0521826051 [ page needed ]
  25. ↑ Lippa RA (2005). Gender, nature, and nurture (2. ed.). Mahwah, NJ [u.a.]: Erlbaum. pp.  12–44. ISBN   978-0805853445.
  26. ↑ Hartung CM, Widiger, TA (May 1998). "Gender differences in the diagnosis of mental disorders: conclusions and controversies of the DSM-IV". Psychological Bulletin. 123 (3): 260–278. doi:10.1037/0033-2909.123.3.260. PMID   9602559. S2CID   3963101.
  27. ↑ Pietrzak R, Laird J, Stevens D, Thompson N (March 2002). "Sex differences in human jealousy: A coordinated study of forced-choice, continuous rating-scale, and physiological responses on the same subjects". Evolution and Human Behavior. 23 (2): 83–94. doi:10.1016/s1090-5138(01)00078-2 . Retrieved 21 March 2013.[ permanent dead link ]
  28. ↑ Hyde JS (September 2005). "The Gender Similarities Hypothesis". American Psychologist. 60 (6): 581–592. CiteSeerX   10.1.1.374.1723 . doi:10.1037/0003-066X.60.6.581. PMID   16173891.
  29. ↑ Tugend A (December 2014). "Engendering Sons". California (Winter 2014): 50.
  30. ↑ Zuriff GE (2015). "The gender similarities hypothesis is untestable as formulated". The American Psychologist. 70 (7): 663–664. doi:10.1037/a0039679. PMID   26436318.
  31. ↑ Trofimova I (2012). "A study of the dynamics of sex differences in adulthood". International Journal of Psychology . 47 (6): 1–7, 47. doi:10.1080/00207594.2012.756981. PMID   23442018.
  32. ↑ Trofimova I (2011). "Are men evolutionarily wired to love the "Easy" buttons?". Nature Precedings. doi: 10.1038/npre.2011.5562.1 .
  33. ↑ Trofimova I (2015). "Do psychological sex differences reflect evolutionary bi-sexual partitioning?". American Journal of Psychology. 128 (4): 485–514. doi:10.5406/amerjpsyc.128.4.0485. JSTOR   10.5406/amerjpsyc.128.4.0485. PMID   26721176.
  34. ↑ Eliot L, Ahmed A, Khan H, Patel J (June 2021). "Dump the 'dimorphism': Comprehensive synthesis of human brain studies reveals few male-female differences beyond size". Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews. 125: 667–697. doi: 10.1016/j.neubiorev.2021.02.026 . PMID   33621637.
  35. ↑ Eamonn Carrabine, Paul Iganski, Maggy Lee (2004). Criminology: A Sociological Introduction. Psychology Press. p. 88. ISBN   978-0415281676 . Retrieved August 7, 2016. Statistics repeatedly show that many more men than women commit crimes. Indeed, as Richard Collier notes, 'most crimes would remain unimaginable without the presence of men (Collier, 1998; see also Jefferson, 2002).
  36. ↑ Jeffery T. Walker, Sean Maddan (2013). Understanding Statistics for the Social Sciences, Criminal Justice, and Criminology. Jones & Bartlett Publishers. p. 99. ISBN   978-1449634032 . Retrieved August 7, 2016. [...] it is well supported in research that more men than women commit crimes.
  37. ↑ Rowe D, Vazsonyi A, Flannery D (1995). "Sex Differences in Crime: Do Means and Within-Sex Variation Have Similar Causes?". Journal of Research in Crime and Delinquency. 32: 84–100. doi:10.1177/0022427895032001004. S2CID   145215732.
  38. ↑ Ellis L (2005). "A Theory Explaining Biological Correlates of Criminality". European Journal of Criminology. 2 (3): 287–315. doi:10.1177/1477370805054098. ISSN   1477-3708. S2CID   53587552.
  39. ↑ "[M]en who are involved in disputes with their partners, whether as alleged victims or as alleged offenders or both, are disadvantaged and treated less favorably than women by the law-enforcement system at almost every step." Brown, G. (2004). Gender as a factor in the response of the law-enforcement system to violence against partners. Sexuality and Culture, 8, (3-4), 3–139.
  40. ↑ Felson RB, Pare P (2005). "The reporting of domestic violence and sexual assault by nonstrangers to the police". Journal of Marriage and Family. 67 (3): 597–610. CiteSeerX   10.1.1.160.1175 . doi:10.1111/j.1741-3737.2005.00156.x.
  41. ↑ Felson, R. B. (2008). "The legal consequences of intimate partner violence for men and women". Children and Youth Services Review, 30, 639–646.
  42. ↑ Burton V, Cullen F, Evans D, Alarid LF, Dunaway RG (1998). "Gender, Self-Control, and Crime". Journal of Research in Crime and Delinquency. 35 (2): 123–147. doi:10.1177/0022427898035002001. S2CID   145328304.
  43. ↑ Pearson J, Riegle-Crumb C (2009). "Gender, Education and". In Ritzer G (ed.). Blackwell Encyclopedia of Sociology. doi:10.1002/9781405165518.wbeosg016. ISBN   9781405124331.
  44. ↑ "Female Business Leaders: Global Statistics".
  45. ↑ "Facts & Stats | Institute for Women's Leadership".
  46. ↑ "Employment: Female share of seats on boards of the largest publicly listed companies".
  47. ↑ "Ranked and mapped: Women in public sector leadership around the world". 26 January 2018.
  48. ↑ Andersen JA, Hansson PH (2011). "At the end of the road? On differences between women and men in leadership behavior". Leadership & Organization Development Journal. 32 (5): 428–441. doi:10.1108/01437731111146550.
  49. ↑ "Women Prefer Male Bosses Even More Than Men Do". Bloomberg. October 16, 2014. Archived from the original on October 16, 2014.
  50. ↑ Juschka, Darlene. "Gender." In ed. J. Hinnels. The Routledge Companion to the Study of Religion. 2nd ed. New York: Routledge, 2010:245–258.
  51. ↑ 'Unborn Child Protection Bill' Archived 2016-03-03 at the Wayback Machine , State Parliament of New South Wales, 2006.
  52. ↑ Laurie, Nina; Andolina, Robert; and Radcliffe, Sarah (2005) 'Ethnodevelopment: Social Movements, Creating Experts and Professionalising Indigenous Knowledge in Ecuador' Antipode 37(3): 470–496
  53. ↑ Putnam, Robert. (1993) Making Democracy Work. Civic Traditions in Modern Italy. Princeton University Press.[ ISBN missing ][ page needed ]
  54. ↑ Moser, Caroline (1993) Gender Planning and Development: Theory, Practice and Training London and New York: Routledge[ ISBN missing ][ page needed ]
  55. ↑ Molyneux M (2002-12-16). "Gender and the Silences of Social Capital: Lessons from Latin America". Development and Change. 33 (2): 167–188. doi:10.1111/1467-7660.00246.
  56. ↑ MacLean K (2010-06-25). "Capitalizing on Women's Social Capital? Women-Targeted Microfinance in Bolivia". Development and Change. 41 (3): 495–515. doi:10.1111/j.1467-7660.2010.01649.x.
  57. ↑ Katharine N. Rankin (2002). "Social Capital, Microfinance, and the Politics of Development" (PDF). Feminist Economics. 8 (1): 1–24. doi:10.1080/13545700210125167. S2CID   153660513. Archived from the original (PDF) on 8 October 2011 – via Zunia.org.
  58. ↑ Udry JR (November 1994). "The Nature of Gender" (PDF). Demography. 31 (4): 561–573. doi:10.2307/2061790. JSTOR   2061790. PMID   7890091. S2CID   38476067. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2013-04-03.
  59. ↑ Canetto, Silvia (1998). "The Gender Paradox in Suicide". Suicide and Life-Threatening Behavior. 28 (1): 1–23. doi:10.1111/j.1943-278X.1998.tb00622.x. PMID   9560163. S2CID   12699944.
  60. ↑ Tsirigotis K, Gruszczynski W, Tsirigotis M (2011-08-01). "Gender differentiation in methods of suicide attempts". Medical Science Monitor. 17 (8): PH65–PH70. doi:10.12659/MSM.881887. ISSN   1234-1010. PMC   3539603 . PMID   21804473.
  61. ↑ "Suicides in the UK - Office for National Statistics". www.ons.gov.uk. Retrieved 2021-08-05.
  62. ↑ "U.S. Suicide Statistics (2005)". Suicide.org. Retrieved 2019-09-10.
  63. ↑ Bajtelsmit VL, Bernasek A (1996). "Why Do Women Invest Differently Than Men?". Journal of Financial Counseling and Planning. 7: 1–10.
  64. ↑ Adhikari BK, O'Leary VE (2011). "Gender Differences in Risk Aversion: A Developing Nation's Case" (PDF). Journal of Personal Finance. 10 (2): 122–147.
  65. ↑ Georgette Jasen (May 3, 2015). "Male Investors vs. Female Investors" . The Wall Street Journal.
  66. ↑ Kurt D, Inman JJ, Argo JJ (2011). "The influence of friends on consumer spending: The role of agency-communion orientation and self-monitoring". Journal of Marketing Research. 48 (4): 741–754. doi:10.1509/jmkr.48.4.741. S2CID   143542642.
  67. ↑ Dommer SL, Swaminathan V (2013). "Explaining the endowment effect through ownership: The role of identity, gender, and self-threat". Journal of Consumer Research. 39 (5): 1034–1050. doi:10.1086/666737.

Further reading

This page is based on this Wikipedia article
Text is available under the CC BY-SA 4.0 license; additional terms may apply.
Images, videos and audio are available under their respective licenses.