Sex differences in education in the United States

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Sex differences in education in the United States refers to the specific issues, such as gender-based discrimination related to coursework and use of disciplinary action, that American students of all genders encounter. Furthermore, while sex differences in education explains the prevalence of gender-based differences in education on a global scale, the American education system includes specific forms of gender discrimination dissimilar to other countries.

Contents

Statistics

Girls and boys have very different developmental trajectories. It has been found that boys are the most likely to delay entry into kindergarten (60% of the children are boys), meaning they do not attend until they are at least 6 years old. [1] Boys are also more likely than girls to repeat a grade or more during their time in elementary school (66% of children who repeat kindergarten are boys). [1] On average, girls perform significantly better in school and earn better grades. [1] But, girls and boys do have different strengths. On average, girls perform better in writing and boys are ahead of girls in mathematics. [2]

Men and women workers in the United States have the same mean numbers of years of education which is 12.2 years. [3] But there are some discrepancies across gender when it comes to education. When it comes to terminating an educational career, men are more likely to terminate their education either before achieving a high school diploma or at the college level (5,779), whereas women are more likely to terminate their education after having achieved a high school diploma. [4] When it comes to amount of education, working class girls tended to have the shortest academic career. [5] Middle-class boys have the longest academic careers. [5] The sex gap for education was wider between the working class children and the middle class children. [2] Girls had a wider gap when it came to the class gap then boys. [2]

The American School System and Male Students

Male students, like their female counterparts, experience discrimination in academic settings. Several scholars argue this discrimination focuses on teachers' discipline of their male students as well as on the attitudes of other male peers. Educational scholars and other sociologists use these claims to support their theories regarding male enrollment in specific academic subjects.

Dan Kindlon and Michael Thompson examine the ways in which boys' earlier experiences with education impact their later relationships with schooling. For example, they write of a male patient whose struggles in middle school were traced back to his history of disciplinary violations. [6] The authors go on to state that boys' typical behaviors—such as their propensity for physical action—are a "problem" when they enter American schools, institutions that prioritize obedience and self-control. [7] Furthermore, Kindlon and Thompson explain the detriment of stereotypes surrounding boys, explaining how teachers often ascribe their own biases to male students. [8]

Authors like Myra Sadker and David Sadker provide a history to the argument that schools are "feminine" spaces—a critique these authors challenge. [9] In this overview, they explain how women's entrance into the teaching profession at the time of the Civil War eventually enabled women to lead the field. [9] This large number of female teachers in American schools thus created a fear among men that boys would learn (and perform) traits that were socially coded as feminine. [10] Shifting from this history, Sadker and Sadker write how heteronormative standards, which American schools reinforce through activities, such as sports, affect boys' ideas of themselves and their female peers. [11]

DiPrete and Buchmann synthesize other scholars' work concerning conceptions of "masculinity" and its influence on male performance in American high schools. They use examples, such as survey data and student interviews, to highlight the fact that peer groups may be partially responsible for explaining male patterns of achievement. [12] For example, they highlight research that suggests male students "gender" good academic performance. [12]

While studies have demonstrated the disparities between male and female students in STEM, a study by the American Association of University Women shows the unequal distribution of male students in subjects like English and the Arts. [13] Notably, male students enroll in "remedial" English classes more often than their female counterparts. [14] The authors posit that educators in these fields (especially in literature) may use learning techniques that girls prefer. [14] This disparity between male-female enrollments in literature classes may also reflect the gendered ideas of students, as students enroll in classes most in line with their expressed gender identity. [15]

STEM Education

Males largely outnumber females in science, technology, engineering, and mathematics related careers, which are commonly referred to as STEM. This disparity can be attributed to a multitude of causes. The belief in stereotypes, lack of science self-confidence, and dissatisfaction with the way science education is presented are the primary issues preventing women from becoming more involved in STEM fields. [9]

This scarcity of women is often compared to a leaky pipeline. As children, both boys and girls express equal amounts of interest in science, but as they age the girls slowly drop the subject in favor of more traditionally female fields. [12] While this theory satisfactorily illustrates the changes at a younger age, the number of women in STEM fields does not change drastically once they enter college. Therefore, the issue is one of interest much earlier on.

Throughout high school, the percentage of males interested in STEM careers changed from 39.5 to 39.7, effectively staying constant. Contrastingly, the percentage of females interested changed from 15.7 to 12.7. [12] Not only are the initial interest levels over twice as low for females, they also drop by nearly 20%. This data suggests, then, that the differences between male and female interest in STEM subjects is developed from an early age and exacerbated through education. Many school systems present students with multiple paths of science education. If students have had negative experience with science, they are more likely to choose a path with fewer requirements. When female students reach the age where they begin to feel ostracized by their peers for a passion for science, they have an easy option to transition out of the field completely.

Many studies have been performed with the intention of determining social effects on girls in STEM. In one sample, the girls had higher science grades than the boys. Nonetheless, they maintained equal self-confidence and reported higher levels of anxiety and stress because of the class. [9] Many capable young women may be opting out of STEM fields because they feel inferior to their male classmates.

Closing the gap between genders in STEM is vital for both women and the success of the fields themselves. The way to do this is through education. In February 2017 legislation such as "The Next Space Pioneers, Innovators, Researchers, and Explorers Women's Act" and "The Promoting Women in Entrepreneur Act" was passed with the intention of encouraging more women and girls to study science, technology, engineering, and mathematics. [16] Colleges across the country are implementing outreach programs designed to mentor and recruit female STEM students. One such example is IWITTS' CalWomenTech Project, which increased the City College of San Francisco's Computer Networking and Information Technology (CNIT) program's female enrollment from 18.1% to 30.1%. [17]

The Gender Gap of Attitudes Towards Education

Girls have often received higher grades than boys. Thomas A. DiPrete and Claudia Bachmann say one of the three main reasons for this is because girls show higher levels of attachment to school leading to a deeper sense of gratification when receiving these good grades. Students encourage school involvement if it is paired with the suitable behaviors of being popular, athletic, or participating in extracurricular activities according to Thomas A. DiPrete and Claudia Buchmann. However, girls express stronger connections to their education than boys. 90 percent of eighth grade males responded that good grades are important. 50 percent said that good grades are very important. Girls' value of their academic success was shown as closer to the perceived value of their parents than boys. 95 percent of girls reported that good grades are important to them, and 62 percent declared that good grades are very important. This gender gap continues even when the sample is shortened to just the high achieving boys and girls. This is portrayed by the 2 percent of girls that received A's answering that grades are only somewhat important, contrasting the 6 percent of exceeding boys who would agree. [1]

65 percent of eighth grade males see themselves earning at least a bachelor's degree. Girls' educational aspirations are even higher. 75 percent of girls expect to get a bachelor's degree, and 42 percent of girls expect to get a master's or doctorate. The gender gap is massive at the doctoral level, seeing how this is nearly 50 percent more than for boys. Thomas A. DiPrete and Claudia Buchmann made the conclusion that since girls typically receive higher marks than boys, and children have a basic understanding that higher grades can lead to higher educational success, that it is reasonable for girls to have aspirations that surpass the boys. Thomas A. DiPrete and Claudia Bachmann said these students' attachment to school could help one to understand their value of their marks and education. Students who are only drawn to school because of an understanding that it is essential for a high salary career can be said to have an "instrumental attachment". They understand school to be an "instrument" that they use to achieve their goal. In contrast, students may have school attachment because they are invested emotionally and receive a great sentiment of success from it, especially when obtaining positive regard from teachers. Students had answered questions relating to whether they felt attached to their school and teachers. Boys did not show as much amount of attachment to school as girls did. [1]

All in all, girls express more support than boys for immediate academic success and long-term scholastic goals . Girls' inspiration for long-term educational success could also be contributed by a higher satisfaction of school and the instant fulfilment they get from a great performance. Thomas A. DiPrete and Claudia Bachmann believe these two forces could be working in unison with each other. [1]

Consequences of inequality in education

Sex discrimination in education persists beyond graduation, influencing one's process of entering the workforce. Networking trends, gender norms, and the perception of parenthood differ based on one's gender. A study done by Lindsey Trimble was conducted to understand how gender influences job networking. [18] Through extensive research, the results shed light on a host of variances in both the execution of networking and its success levels between men and women. Firstly, people are more likely to find a job through same-gender contacts (about 65%), most of which are found through social functions that are already segregated by sex. Gender norms influence this networking process as well. Certain jobs are commonly perceived as only being fit for one gender. For example, only 9% of nurses are male, while only 4% of women work in local sheriff departments. [19] Furthermore, women only make up 4% of CEO positions at S&P 500 companies. [20] Thus, if people are finding jobs through same-gender contacts, these contacts are most likely in gender-segregated positions themselves, perpetuating gender inequality within the job selection process. These gender norms influence how decisions are made regarding whom to network for and whom to hire. People are more likely to help someone out if they think they're fit for the particular job. Gender is often considered to be one of the many indicators of an individual's level of capability. This could lead a contact to assist a man over a woman for careers considered more masculine. Employers decision-making process is influenced by gender stereotypes as well. For example, assertiveness is often considered to be a sign of strength or good leadership in a man, yet, on the contrary, can cause others to think a woman is too opinionated or bossy. Additionally, parenthood affects one's chance of being hired differently based on one's gender. Fatherhood is associated with a greater chance of getting a promotion, while motherhood decreases promotion rates, especially if the children are younger. [21] Statistically, women experience internal promotion rates that are 34–46% lower than for men. Another aspect of parenthood that creates workforce discrimination is the presence of a societal pressure put on women to stay at home with their children. Not only could this make employers less inclined to hire a woman for time-consuming jobs, but it leaves a stigma on mothers who chose to work full-time, something men don't experience. Workforce discrimination is the result of a very complex list of causes, including gender norms and stereotypes, networking patterns, and the perception of parenthood. By better understanding these concepts, one can begin to combat them and create more gender equality.[ citation needed ]

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Sexism</span> Prejudice or discrimination based on a persons sex or gender

Sexism is prejudice or discrimination based on one's sex or gender. Sexism can affect anyone, but primarily affects women and girls. It has been linked to gender roles and stereotypes, and may include the belief that one sex or gender is intrinsically superior to another. Extreme sexism may foster sexual harassment, rape, and other forms of sexual violence. Discrimination in this context is defined as discrimination toward people based on their gender identity or their gender or sex differences. An example of this is workplace inequality. Sexism refers to violation of equal opportunities based on gender or refers to violation of equality of outcomes based on gender, also called substantive equality. Sexism may arise from social or cultural customs and norms.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Universal access to education</span> Ability of all people to have equal opportunity in education

Universal access to education is the ability of all people to have equal opportunity in education, regardless of their social class, race, gender, sexuality, ethnic background or physical and mental disabilities. The term is used both in college admission for the middle and lower classes, and in assistive technology for the disabled. Some critics feel that this practice in higher education, as opposed to a strict meritocracy, causes lower academic standards. In order to facilitate the access of education to all, countries have right to education.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Mixed-sex education</span> System of education where males and females are educated together

Mixed-sex education, also known as mixed-gender education, co-education, or coeducation, is a system of education where males and females are educated together. Whereas single-sex education was more common up to the 19th century, mixed-sex education has since become standard in many cultures, particularly in western countries. Single-sex education remains prevalent in many Muslim countries. The relative merits of both systems have been the subject of debate.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Sex segregation</span> Physical, legal, and cultural separation of people according to their biological sex

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Achievement gaps in the United States are observed, persistent disparities in measures of educational performance among subgroups of U.S. students, especially groups defined by socioeconomic status (SES), race/ethnicity and gender. The achievement gap can be observed through a variety of measures, including standardized test scores, grade point average, dropout rates, college enrollment, and college completion rates. The gap in achievement between lower income students and higher income students exists in all nations and it has been studied extensively in the U.S. and other countries, including the U.K. Various other gaps between groups exist around the globe as well.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Single-sex education</span> Education conducted with males and females separated

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<span class="mw-page-title-main">Educational attainment in the United States</span> American levels of education

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<span class="mw-page-title-main">Sex differences in education</span> Educational discrimination on the basis of sex

Sex differences in education are a type of sex discrimination in the education system affecting both men and women during and after their educational experiences. Men are more likely to be literate on a global average, although higher literacy scores for women are prevalent in many countries. Women are more likely to achieve a tertiary education degree compared to men of the same age. Men tended to receive more education than women in the past, but the gender gap in education has reversed in recent decades in most Western countries and many non-Western countries.

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Educational Inequality is the unequal distribution of academic resources, including but not limited to school funding, qualified and experienced teachers, books, physical facilities and technologies, to socially excluded communities. These communities tend to be historically disadvantaged and oppressed. Individuals belonging to these marginalized groups are often denied access to schools with adequate resources and those that can be accessed are so distant from these communities. Inequality leads to major differences in the educational success or efficiency of these individuals and ultimately suppresses social and economic mobility. Inequality in education is broken down into different types: regional inequality, inequality by sex, inequality by social stratification, inequality by parental income, inequality by parent occupation, and many more.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Feminisation of the workplace</span> The trend towards broader inclusive modes of working

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Women's education in Pakistan is a fundamental right of every female citizen, according to article thirty-seven of the Constitution of Pakistan, but gender discrepancies still exist in the educational sector. According to the 2011 Human Development Report of the United Nations Development Program, approximately twice as many males as females receive a secondary education in Pakistan, and public expenditures on education amount to only 2.7% of the GDP of the country. The unemployment rate of female graduates in Pakistan is approximately 3.8 times higher than that of their male counterparts.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Women in STEM fields</span> Female participants in science, technology, engineering, and mathematics

Many scholars and policymakers have noted that the fields of science, technology, engineering, and mathematics (STEM) have remained predominantly male with historically low participation among women since the origins of these fields in the 18th century during the Age of Enlightenment.

Gender inequality in the United States has been diminishing throughout its history and significant advancements towards equality have been made beginning mostly in the early 1900s. However, despite this progress, gender inequality in the United States continues to persist in many forms, including the disparity in women's political representation and participation, occupational segregation, and the unequal distribution of household labor. The alleviation of gender inequality has been the goal of several major pieces of legislation since 1920 and continues to the present day. As of 2021, the World Economic Forum ranks the United States 30th in terms of gender equality out of 149 countries.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Gender pay gap</span> Average difference in remuneration amounts between men and women

The gender pay gap or gender wage gap is the average difference between the remuneration for men and women who are working. Women are generally found to be paid less than men. There are two distinct numbers regarding the pay gap: non-adjusted versus adjusted pay gap. The latter typically takes into account differences in hours worked, occupations chosen, education and job experience. In other words, the adjusted values represent how much women and men make for the same work, while the non-adjusted values represent how much the average man and woman make in total. In the United States, for example, the non-adjusted average woman's annual salary is 79–83% of the average man's salary, compared to 95–99% for the adjusted average salary.

Discrimination in education is the act of discriminating against people belonging to certain demographics in enjoying full right to education. It is a violation of human rights. Education discrimination can be on the basis of ethnicity, nationality, age, gender, race, economic condition, language spoken, caste, disability and religion.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Female education in STEM</span>

Female education in STEM refers to child and adult female representation in the educational fields of science, technology, engineering, and mathematics (STEM). In 2017, 33% of students in STEM fields were women.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Gender gap in Pakistan</span>

The gender gap in Pakistan refers to the differences between men and women in Pakistan in terms of social, political, and economic participation and rights. The gender gap uses the gender ratio of Pakistan to compare the disparities between men and women in different fields, which mainly disadvantage women. According to the Global Gender Gap Index 2022, Pakistan ranks second to last in terms of the Gender Gap, with only 56.4% of its gender gap closed, a 0.8 percentage point increase from 2021. By percentage, men form about 51.46% and women form about 48.54% of the total population of Pakistan. The sex ratio of Pakistan is 106.010, that means there are about 106 men for every 100 women in Pakistan. The gender gap in Pakistan includes comparisons of gender differences in health, educational, legal, economical, and political aspects.

According to the National Science Foundation (NSF), women and racial minorities are underrepresented in science, technology, engineering, and mathematics (STEM). Scholars, governments, and scientific organizations from around the world have noted a variety of explanations contributing to this lack of racial diversity, including higher levels of discrimination, implicit bias, microaggressions, chilly climate, lack of role models and mentors, and less academic preparation.

References

  1. 1 2 3 4 5 6 DiPrete, T. A., Buchmann, C. (2013). The rise of women: the growing gender gap in education and what it means for American schools. New York: Russell Sage Foundation
  2. 1 2 3 "Digest of Education Statistics, 2007".
  3. ↑ Andrews, Emily. "Earnings and Sex: An Empirical Investigation of Discrimination 1940- 1951." Ph.D. dissertation, Department of Economics, University of Pennsylvania
  4. ↑ Madden, Janice Fanning. “Economic Rationale for Sex Differences in Education.” Southern Economic Journal, vol. 44, no. 4, 1978, pp. 778–797., https://www.jstor.org/stable/1057729.
  5. 1 2 King, Ronald. “Sex and Social Class Inequalities in Education: A Re-Examination.” British Journal of Sociology of Education, vol. 8, no. 3, 1987, pp. 287–303
  6. ↑ Kindlon, Dan; Thompson, Michael (1999). "Thorns Among Roses: The Struggle of Young Boys in Early Education". Raising Cain: Protecting the Emotional Life of Boys. New York: Ballantine Books. p. 160.{{cite book}}: |work= ignored (help)
  7. ↑ Kindlon, Dan; Thompson, Michael (1999). "Thorns Among Roses: The Struggle of Young Boys in Early Education". Raising Cain: Protecting the Emotional Life of Boys. New York: Ballantine Books. p. 162.{{cite book}}: |work= ignored (help)
  8. ↑ Kindlon, Dan; Thompson, Michael (1999). "Thorns Among Roses: The Struggle of Young Boys in Early Education". Raising Cain: Protecting the Emotional Life of Boys. New York: Ballantine Books. p. 166.{{cite book}}: |work= ignored (help)
  9. 1 2 3 4 Sadker, Myra; Sadker, David (1994). "The Miseducation of Boys". Failing at Fairness: How Our Schools Cheat Girls. New York: Simon & Schuster. p. 188.{{cite book}}: |work= ignored (help)
  10. ↑ Sadker, Myra; Sadker, David (1994). "The Miseducation of Boys". Failing at Fairness: How Our Schools Cheat Girls. New York: Simon & Schuster. pp. 188–189.{{cite book}}: |work= ignored (help)
  11. ↑ Sadker, Myra; Sadker, David (1994). "The Miseducation of Boys". Failing at Fairness: How Our Schools Cheat Girls. New York: Simon & Schuster. pp. 191–192, 194.{{cite book}}: |work= ignored (help)
  12. 1 2 3 4 DiPrete, Thomas; Buchmann, Claudia (2013). "Schools, Classrooms, and Peers". The Rise of Women: The Growing Gender Gap in Education and What it Means for American Schools. New York: Russell Sage Foundation. p. 169.
  13. ↑ American Institutes for Research (1998). "Course-Taking Patters". Gender Gaps: Where Schools Still Fail Our Children. Washington, DC.: American Association of University Women Educational Foundation. p. 278.{{cite book}}: |work= ignored (help)
  14. 1 2 American Institutes for Research (1998). "Course-Taking Patters". Gender Gaps: Where Schools Still Fail Our Children. Washington, DC.: American Association of University Women Educational Foundation. p. 284.{{cite book}}: |work= ignored (help)
  15. ↑ American Institutes for Research (1998). "Course-Taking Patters". Gender Gaps: Where Schools Still Fail Our Children. Washington, DC.: American Association of University Women Educational Foundation. pp. 284–285.{{cite book}}: |work= ignored (help)
  16. ↑ "New Legislation Aims to Boost Women in STEM Education and Careers." Women in Academia Report. BruCon Publishing Company, 6 Mar. 2017. Web.
  17. ↑ Milgram, Donna. "How to Recruit Women and Girls to the Science, Technology, Engineering, and Math (STEM) Classroom: The Absence of Women from STEM Education and Careers Affects More than the Women; It Is a Missed Opportunity for Those Fields." Gale. N.p., Nov. 2011. Web.
  18. ↑ Munsch, Christin. "Women's jobs, men's jobs: why networking can lead women to lower-paying jobs". The Clayman Institute for Gender Research. Retrieved 9 April 2017.
  19. ↑ "Men in Nursing Occupations: American Community Survey Highlight Report" (PDF). U.S. Census Bureau. Archived from the original (PDF) on 13 July 2017. Retrieved 9 April 2017.
  20. ↑ "Statistical Overview of Women In The Workforce". Catalyst. Retrieved 9 April 2017.
  21. ↑ Covert, Bryce. "Women With The Same Qualifications As Men Get Passed Over For Promotion". ThinkProgress. Retrieved 9 April 2017.
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