Gender identity

Last updated

Gender identity is the personal sense of one's own gender. [1] Gender identity can correlate with a person's assigned sex or can differ from it. In most individuals, the various biological determinants of sex are congruent and consistent with the individual's gender identity. [2] Gender expression typically reflects a person's gender identity, but this is not always the case. [3] [4] While a person may express behaviors, attitudes, and appearances consistent with a particular gender role, such expression may not necessarily reflect their gender identity. The term gender identity was coined by psychiatry professor Robert J. Stoller in 1964 and popularized by psychologist John Money. [5] [6] [7]

Contents

In most societies, there is a basic division between gender attributes associated with males and females, a gender binary to which most people adhere and which includes expectations of masculinity and femininity in all aspects of sex and gender: biological sex, gender identity, gender expression, and sexual orientation. [8] [9] [10] Some people do not identify with some, or all, of the aspects of gender associated with their biological sex; some of those people are transgender, non-binary, or genderqueer. Some societies have third gender categories. [11]

The 2012 book Introduction to Behavioral Science in Medicine says that with exceptions, "Gender identity develops surprisingly rapidly in the early childhood years, and in the majority of instances appears to become at least partially irreversible by the age of 3 or 4". [12] [13] The Endocrine Society has stated "Considerable scientific evidence has emerged demonstrating a durable biological element underlying gender identity. Individuals may make choices due to other factors in their lives, but there do not seem to be external forces that genuinely cause individuals to change gender identity." [14] Social constructivists argue that gender identity, or the way it is expressed, are socially constructed, determined by cultural and social influences. Constructivism of this type is not necessarily incompatible with the existence of an innate gender identity, since it may be the expression of that gender that varies by culture. [15]

Age of formation

There are several theories about how and when gender identity forms, and studying the subject is difficult because children's immature language acquisition requires researchers to make assumptions from indirect evidence. [16] John Money suggested children might have awareness of and attach some significance to gender as early as 18 months to 2 years; Lawrence Kohlberg argued that gender identity does not form until age 3. [16] It is widely agreed that core gender identity is firmly formed by age 3. [16] [12] [17] At this point, children can make firm statements about their gender [16] [18] and tend to choose activities and toys which are considered appropriate for their gender [16] (such as dolls and painting for girls, and tools and rough-housing for boys), [19] although they do not yet fully understand the implications of gender. [18] After age three, it is extremely difficult to change gender identity. [13]

Martin and Ruble conceptualize this process of development as three stages: (1) as toddlers and pre-schoolers, children learn about defined characteristics, which are socialized aspects of gender; (2) around the ages of five to seven years, identity is consolidated and becomes rigid; (3) after this "peak of rigidity", fluidity returns and socially defined gender roles relax somewhat. [20] Barbara Newmann breaks it down into four parts: (1) understanding the concept of gender, (2) learning gender role standards and stereotypes, (3) identifying with parents, and (4) forming gender preference. [18]

According to the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) comprehensive sexuality education should raise awareness of topics such as gender and gender identity. [21]

Factors influencing formation

Nature versus nurture

Although the formation of gender identity is not completely understood, many factors have been suggested as influencing its development. In particular, the extent to which gender identity is determined by nurture (social environmental factors) versus biological factors (which may include non-social environmental factors) is at the core of the ongoing debate in psychology known as "nature versus nurture". [22] [23] There is increasing evidence that the brain is affected by the organizational role of hormones in utero, circulating sex hormones and the expression of certain genes. [23]

Social factors which may influence gender identity include ideas regarding gender roles conveyed by family, authority figures, mass media, and other influential people in a child's life. [24] [ clarification needed ] The social learning theory posits that children furthermore develop their gender identity through observing and imitating gender-linked behaviors, and then being rewarded or punished for behaving that way, thus being shaped by the people surrounding them through trying to imitate and follow them. [25] [26]

Large-scale twin studies suggest that the development of both transgender and cisgender gender identities is due to genetic factors, with a small potential influence of unique environmental factors. [27]

John Money was instrumental in the early research of gender identity, though he used the term gender role. [28] He disagreed with the previous school of thought that gender was determined solely by biology. He argued that infants are born a blank slate and a parent could be able to decide their babies' gender. [29] In Money's opinion, if the parent confidently raised their child as the opposite sex from earlier than age two, the child would believe that they were born that sex and act accordingly. [30] Money believed that nurture could override nature. [29]

Case of David Reimer and contrasting case

A well-known example in the nature-versus-nurture debate is the case of David Reimer, born in 1965, otherwise known as "John/Joan". As a baby, Reimer went through a faulty circumcision, losing his male genitalia. John Money advised Reimer's parents to raise him as a girl. Reimer underwent sex reassignment surgery at seventeen months and grew up as a girl, dressing in girl clothes and surrounded by girl toys. In the early 1970s, Money reported that Reimer's sex reassignment to female was a success, influencing the academic consensus toward the nurture hypothesis, and for the following 30 years, it became standard medical practice to reassign intersex infants and male infants with micropenises to female. [31]

After Reimer tried to commit suicide at age 13, he was told that he had been born with male genitalia. Reimer stopped seeing Money, and underwent surgery to remove his breasts and reconstruct his genitals. [32] In 1997, sexologist Milton Diamond published a follow-up, revealing that Reimer had rejected his female reassignment, and arguing against the blank slate hypothesis and infant sex reassignment in general. [33]

Diamond was a longtime opponent of Money's theories. Diamond had contributed to research involving pregnant rats that showed hormones played a major role in the behavior of different sexes. [30] [ page needed ] The researchers in the lab would inject the pregnant rat with testosterone, which would then find its way to the baby's bloodstream. [29] The females that were born had genitalia that looked like male genitalia. The females in the litter also behaved like male rats and would even try to mount other female rats, proving that biology played a major role in animal behavior. [30] [ page needed ]

One criticism of the Reimer case is that Reimer lost his penis at the age of eight months and underwent sex reassignment surgery at seventeen months, which possibly meant that Reimer had already been influenced by his socialization as a boy. Bradley et al. (1998) report the contrasting case of a 26-year-old woman with XY chromosomes whose penis was lost and who underwent sex reassignment surgery between two and seven months of age (substantially earlier than Reimer), whose parents were also more committed to raising their child as a girl than Reimer's, and who remained a woman into adulthood. She reported that she had been somewhat tomboyish during childhood, enjoying stereotypically masculine childhood toys and interests, although her childhood friends were girls. While she was bisexual, having had relationships with both men and women, she found women more sexually attractive and they featured more in her fantasies. Her job at the time of the study was a blue-collar occupation that was practiced almost exclusively by men. [34] Griet Vandermassen argues that since these are the only two cases being documented in scientific literature, this makes it difficult to draw any firm conclusions from them about the origins of gender identity, particularly given the two cases reached different conclusions. However, Vandermassen also argued that transgender people support the idea of gender identity as being biologically rooted, as they do not identify with their anatomical sex despite being raised and their behaviour reinforced according to their anatomical sex. [35]

Other cases

One study by Reiner et al. looked at fourteen genetic males who had suffered cloacal exstrophy and were thus raised as girls. Six of them changed their gender identity to male, five remained female and three had ambiguous gender identities (though two of them had declared they were male). All the subjects had moderate to marked interests and attitudes consistent with that of biological males. [36] Another study, [37] using data from a variety of cases from the 1970s to the early 2000s (including Reiner et al.), looked at males raised as females due to a variety of developmental disorders (penile agenesis, cloacal exstrophy or penile ablation). It found that 78% of those males raised as females were living as females. [38] A minority of those raised as female later switched to male. However, none of the males raised as male switched their gender identity. Those still living as females still showed marked masculinisation of gender role behaviour and those old enough reported sexual attraction to women. The study's authors caution drawing any strong conclusions from it due to numerous methodological caveats which were a severe problem in studies of this nature. Rebelo et al. argue that the evidence in totality suggests that gender identity is neither determined entirely by childhood rearing nor entirely by biological factors. [39]

Biological factors

Several prenatal biological factors, including genes and hormones, may affect gender identity. [22] [40] It has been suggested that gender identity is controlled by prenatal sex steroids, but this is hard to test because there is no way to study gender identity in animals. [41] According to biologist Michael J. Ryan, gender identity is exclusive to humans. [42]

In a position statement, the Endocrine Society stated: [14]

The medical consensus in the late 20th century was that transgender and gender incongruent individuals suffered a mental health disorder termed "gender identity disorder." Gender identity was considered malleable and subject to external influences. Today, however, this attitude is no longer considered valid. Considerable scientific evidence has emerged demonstrating a durable biological element underlying gender identity. Individuals may make choices due to other factors in their lives, but there do not seem to be external forces that genuinely cause individuals to change gender identity.

Transgender and transsexuality

Some studies have investigated whether there is a link between biological variables and transgender or transsexual identity. [43] [44] [45] Several studies have shown that sexually dimorphic brain structures in transsexuals are shifted away from what is associated with their birth sex and towards what is associated with their preferred sex. [46] [47] The volume of the central subdivision of the bed nucleus of a stria terminalis or BSTc (a constituent of the basal ganglia of the brain which is affected by prenatal androgens) of transsexual women has been suggested to be similar to women's and unlike men's, [48] [49] but the relationship between BSTc volume and gender identity is still unclear. [50] Similar brain structure differences have been noted between gay and heterosexual men, and between lesbian and heterosexual women. [51] [52] Transsexuality has a genetic component. [53]

Research suggests that the same hormones that promote the differentiation of sex organs in utero also elicit puberty and influence the development of gender identity. Different amounts of these male or female sex hormones can result in behavior and external genitalia that do not match the norm of their sex assigned at birth, and in acting and looking like their identified gender. [54]

Social and environmental factors

Social scientists tend to assume that gender identities arise from social factors. [55] In 1955, John Money proposed that gender identity was malleable and determined by whether a child was raised as male or female in early childhood. [56] [57] Money's hypothesis has since been discredited, [57] [58] but scholars have continued to study the effect of social factors on gender identity formation. [57] In the 1960s and 1970s, factors such as the absence of a father, a mother's wish for a daughter, or parental reinforcement patterns were suggested as influences; more recent theories suggesting that parental psychopathology might partly influence gender identity formation have received only minimal empirical evidence, [57] with a 2004 article noting that "solid evidence for the importance of postnatal social factors is lacking." [59] A 2008 study found that the parents of gender-dysphoric children showed no signs of psychopathological issues aside from mild depression in the mothers. [60] It has also been suggested that the attitudes of the child's parents may affect the child's gender identity, although evidence is minimal. [61]

Parental establishment of gender roles

Parents who do not support gender nonconformity are more likely to have children with firmer and stricter views on gender identity and gender roles. [54] Recent literature suggests a trend towards less well-defined gender roles and identities, as studies of the parental association ("coding") of toys as masculine, feminine, or neutral indicate that parents increasingly code kitchens and in some cases dolls as neutral rather than exclusively feminine. [62] However, Emily Kane found that many parents still showed negative responses to items, activities, or attributes that were considered feminine, such as domestic skills, nurturance, and empathy. [62] Research has indicated that many parents attempt to define gender for their sons in a manner that distances the sons from femininity, [62] with Kane stating that "the parental boundary maintenance work evident for sons represents a crucial obstacle limiting boys' options, separating boys from girls, devaluing activities marked as feminine for both boys and girls, and thus bolstering gender inequality and heteronormativity." [62]

Many parents form gendered expectations for their child before it is even born, after determining the child's sex through technology such as ultrasound. The child thus is born to a gender-specific name, games, and even ambitions. [40] Once the child's sex is determined, most children are raised to in accordance with it, fitting a male or female gender role defined partly by the parents.

When considering the parents' social class, lower-class families typically hold traditional gender roles, where the father works and the mother, who may only work out of financial necessity, still takes care of the household. However, middle-class "professional" couples typically negotiate the division of labor and hold an egalitarian ideology. These different views on gender can shape the child's understanding of gender as well as the child's development of gender. [63]

A study conducted by Hillary Halpern [63] demonstrated that parental gender behaviors, rather than beliefs, are better predictors of a child's attitude on gender. A mother's behavior was especially influential on a child's assumptions of the child's own gender. For example, mothers who practiced more traditional behaviors around their children resulted in the son displaying fewer stereotypes of male roles while the daughter displayed more stereotypes of female roles. No correlation was found between a father's behavior and his children's knowledge of stereotypes of their own gender. Fathers who held the belief of equality between the sexes had children, especially sons, who displayed fewer preconceptions of their opposite gender.

Intersex people

Estimates of the number of people who are intersex range from 0.018% to 1.7%, depending on which conditions are counted as intersex. [64] [65] An intersex person is one possessing any of several variations in sex characteristics including chromosomes, gonads, sex hormones, or genitals that, according to the United Nations Office of the High Commissioner for Human Rights, "do not fit typical binary notions of male or female bodies". [66] An intersex variation may complicate initial sex assignment [67] and that assignment may not be consistent with the child's future gender identity. [68] Reinforcing sex assignments through surgical and hormonal means may violate the individual's rights. [69] [70]

A 2005 study on the gender identity outcomes of female-raised 46,XY persons with penile agenesis, cloacal exstrophy of the bladder, or penile ablation, found that 78% of the study subjects were living as female, as opposed to 22% who decided to initiate a sex change to male in line with their genetic sex. [71] The study concludes: "The findings clearly indicate an increased risk of later patient-initiated gender re-assignment to male after female assignment in infancy or early childhood, but are nevertheless incompatible with the notion of a full determination of core gender identity by prenatal androgens."

A 2012 clinical review paper found that between 8.5% and 20% of people with intersex variations experienced gender dysphoria. [72] Sociological research in Australia, a country with a third 'X' sex classification, shows that 19% of people born with atypical sex characteristics selected an "X" or "other" option, while 52% are women, 23% men, and 6% unsure. At birth, 52% of persons in the study were assigned female, and 41% were assigned male. [73] [74]

A study by Reiner & Gearhart provides some insight into what can happen when genetically male children with cloacal exstrophy are sexually assigned female and raised as girls, [75] according to an 'optimal gender policy' developed by John Money: [69] in a sample of 14 children, follow-up between the ages of 5 and 12 showed that 8 of them identified as boys, and all of the subjects had at least moderately male-typical attitudes and interests, [75] providing support for the argument that genetic variables affect gender identity and behavior independent of socialization.

Gender variance and non-conformance

Gender identity can lead to societal security issues among individuals that do not fit on a binary scale. [76] As of 2022, only 23 states plus Washington D.C. currently have state laws that explicitly prohibit discrimination based on sexual orientation and gender identity. Moreover, only "53% of [the] LGBTQ population live in states prohibiting housing discrimination based on sexual orientation and gender identity", while "17% of [the] LGBTQ population lives in states explicitly interpreting existing prohibition on sex discrimination to include sexual orientation and/or gender identity". [77] In some cases, a person's gender identity is inconsistent with their biological sex characteristics (genitals and secondary sex characteristics), resulting in individuals dressing and/or behaving in a way which is perceived by others as outside cultural gender norms. These gender expressions may be described as gender variant, transgender, or genderqueer (or non-binary) [78] (there is an emerging vocabulary for those who defy traditional gender identity), [79] and people who have such expressions may experience gender dysphoria (traditionally called gender identity disorder or GID). Transgender individuals are often greatly affected by language and gender pronouns before, during, and after their transition. [80] [81]

In recent decades it has become possible to provide sex reassignment surgery. Some people who experience gender dysphoria seek such medical intervention to have their physiological sex match their gender identity; others retain the genitalia they were born with (see transsexual for some of the possible reasons) but adopt a gender role that is consistent with their gender identity. [82] Within recent years modern society has made strides towards the acknowledgement and destigmatization of those who identify as non-binary or a gender variant, with sex reassignment surgery expected to grow by an annual rate of about 11% from the years 2022 to 2030. [83] Although sex reassignment surgery is expected to become more popular, the surgery is still not destigmatized in a lot of countries, including the United States. Such stigmatization has been shown to have adverse health effects on LGBTQ+ individuals, especially during the COVID-19 pandemic. [84]

History and definitions

Definitions

The terms gender identity and core gender identity were first used with their current meaning—one's personal experience of one's own gender [1] [16] —sometime in the 1960s. [85] [86] To this day they are usually used in that sense, [8] though a few scholars additionally use the term to refer to the sexual orientation and sexual identity categories gay , lesbian and bisexual . [87] Gender expression is distinct from gender identity in that gender expression is how one chooses to outwardly express their gender through one's "name, pronouns, clothing, hair style, behavior, voice or body features." [88] It is thus distinct from gender identity in that it is the external expression of gender but may not necessarily portray a person's gender identity and may vary "according to racial/ethnic background, socio-economic status and place of residence." [89]

Early medical literature

In late-19th-century medical literature, women who chose not to conform to their expected gender roles were called "inverts", and they were portrayed as having an interest in knowledge and learning, and a "dislike and sometimes incapacity for needlework". [90] During the mid-1900s, doctors pushed for corrective therapy on such women and children, which meant that gender behaviors that were not part of the norm would be punished and changed. [91] [92] The aim of this therapy was to push children back to their "correct" gender roles and thereby limit the number of children who became transgender. [90]

Freud and Jung's views

In 1905, Sigmund Freud presented his theory of psychosexual development in Three Essays on the Theory of Sexuality , giving evidence that in the pregenital phase children do not distinguish between sexes, but assume both parents have the same genitalia and reproductive powers. On this basis, he argued that bisexuality was the original sexual orientation and that heterosexuality was resultant of repression during the phallic stage, at which point gender identity became ascertainable. [93] According to Freud, during this stage, children developed an Oedipus complex where they had sexual fantasies for the parent ascribed the opposite gender and hatred for the parent ascribed the same gender, and this hatred transformed into (unconscious) transference and (conscious) identification with the hated parent who both exemplified a model to appease sexual impulses and threatened to castrate the child's power to appease sexual impulses. [25] In 1913, Carl Jung proposed the Electra complex as he both believed that bisexuality did not lie at the origin of psychic life, and that Freud did not give adequate description to the female child (Freud rejected this suggestion). [94]

1950s and 1960s

During the 1950s and '60s, psychologists began studying gender development in young children, partially in an effort to understand the origins of homosexuality (which was viewed as a mental disorder at the time). In 1958, the Gender Identity Research Project was established at the UCLA Medical Center for the study of intersex and transsexual individuals. Psychoanalyst Robert Stoller generalized many of the findings of the project in his book Sex and Gender: On the Development of Masculinity and Femininity (1968). He is also credited with introducing the term gender identity to the International Psychoanalytic Congress in Stockholm, Sweden, in 1963. [95] Behavioral psychologist John Money was also instrumental in the development of early theories of gender identity. His work at Johns Hopkins Medical School's Gender Identity Clinic (established in 1965) popularized an interactionist theory of gender identity, suggesting that, up to a certain age, gender identity is relatively fluid and subject to constant negotiation. His book Man and Woman, Boy and Girl (1972) became widely used as a college textbook, although many of Money's ideas have since been challenged. [96] [97]

Butler's views

In the late 1980s, gender studies scholar Judith Butler began lecturing regularly on the topic of gender identity, and in 1990, they published Gender Trouble: Feminism and the Subversion of Identity , introducing the concept of gender performativity. [98] Butler argues that the traditional view of gender is limiting in that it adheres to the dominant societal constraints that label gender as binary. In scrutinizing gender, Butler introduces a nuanced perception in which they unite the concepts of performativity and gender. [99]

Present views

Medical field

Transgender people sometimes wish to undergo physical surgery to refashion their primary sexual characteristics, secondary characteristics, or both, because they feel they will be more comfortable with different genitalia. This may involve removal of penis, testicles or breasts, or the fashioning of a penis, vagina or breasts. [100] In the past, sex assignment surgery has been performed on infants who are born with ambiguous genitalia. However, current medical opinion is strongly against this procedure on infants, and recommends that the procedure be only conducted when medically necessary. [101] Today, gender-affirming surgery is performed on people who choose to transition so that their external sexual organs will match their gender identity. [102]

In the United States, the Affordable Care Act provided that health insurance exchanges would have the ability to collect demographic information on gender identity and sexual identity through optional questions, to help policymakers better recognize the needs of the LGBTQ community. [103] In 2020, however, the Trump administration finalized a rule that "would remove nondiscrimination protections for LGBTQ people when it comes to health care and health insurance" in the Affordable Care Act and extends to "regulations pertaining to access to health insurance." [104] This rule "is one of the many rules and regulations put forward by the Trump administration that defines "sex discrimination" as only applying when someone faces discrimination for being male or female, and does not protect people from discrimination on the basis of sexual orientation or gender identity." [104]

Gender dysphoria and gender identity disorder

Gender dysphoria (previously called "gender identity disorder" or GID in the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders or DSM) is the formal diagnosis of people who experience significant dysphoria (discontent) with the sex they were assigned at birth and/or the gender roles associated with that sex: [105] [106] "In gender identity disorder, there is discordance between the natal sex of one's external genitalia and the brain coding of one's gender as masculine or feminine." [85] The DSM (302.85) has five criteria that must be met before a diagnosis of gender identity disorder can be made, and the disorder is further subdivided into specific diagnoses based on age, for example gender identity disorder in children (for children who experience gender dysphoria).

The concept of gender identity appeared in the third edition of the DSM, DSM-III (1980), in the form of two psychiatric diagnoses of gender dysphoria: gender identity disorder of childhood (GIDC), and transsexualism (for adolescents and adults). The 1987 revision of the manual, DSM-III-R, added a third diagnosis: gender identity disorder of adolescence and adulthood, nontranssexual type. This latter diagnosis was removed in the subsequent revision, DSM-IV (1994), which also collapsed GIDC and transsexualism into a new diagnosis of gender identity disorder. [107] In 2013, the DSM-5 renamed the diagnosis gender dysphoria and revised its definition. [108]

The authors of a 2005 academic paper questioned the classification of gender identity problems as a mental disorder, speculating that certain DSM revisions may have been made on a tit-for-tat basis when certain groups were pushing for the removal of homosexuality as a disorder. This remains controversial, [107] although the vast majority of today's mental health professionals follow and agree with the current DSM classifications. In recent years, however, there has been a "growing chorus of voices contesting the pathologization of transgender lives and the dominance of medical-scientific narratives about trans experience." [109] As such, in 2019, the World Health Organization removed gender dysphoria from the mental illness chapter and moved it instead to the sexual health chapter, changing the term "Gender Dysphoria" to "Gender Incongruence," thereby removing gender dysphoria as a pathological mental illness. [110]

International human rights law

The Yogyakarta Principles, a document on the application of international human rights law, provide in the preamble a definition of gender identity as each person's deeply felt internal and individual experience of gender, which may not correspond with the sex assigned at birth, including the person's sense of the body (which may involve, if freely chosen, modification of bodily appearance or function by medical, surgical or other means) and other experience of gender, including dress, speech and mannerism. Principle 3 states that "Each person's self-defined [...] gender identity is integral to their personality and is one of the most basic aspects of self-determination, dignity and freedom. No one shall be forced to undergo medical procedures, including sex reassignment surgery, sterilisation or hormonal therapy, as a requirement for legal recognition of their gender identity." [111] Principle 18 states that "Notwithstanding any classifications to the contrary, a person's sexual orientation and gender identity are not, in and of themselves, medical conditions and are not to be treated, cured or suppressed." [112] Relating to this principle, the "Jurisprudential Annotations to the Yogyakarta Principles" observed that "Gender identity differing from that assigned at birth, or socially rejected gender expression, have been treated as a form of mental illness. The pathologization of difference has led to gender-transgressive children and adolescents being confined in psychiatric institutions, and subjected to aversion techniques – including electroshock therapy – as a 'cure'." [113] The "Yogyakarta Principles in Action" says "it is important to note that while 'sexual orientation' has been declassified as a mental illness in many countries, 'gender identity' or 'gender identity disorder' often remains in consideration." [114] These Principles influenced the UN declaration on sexual orientation and gender identity. In 2015, gender identity was part of the United States Supreme Court case Obergefell v. Hodges in which marriage was no longer legally restricted to be only between man and woman. [115]

Measurement

No objective measurement or imaging of the human body exists for gender identity, as it is part of one's subjective experience. [116] [117] Numerous clinical measurements for assessing gender identity exist, including questionnaire-based, interview-based and task-based assessments. These have varying effect sizes among a number of specific sub-populations. [118] Gender identity measures have been applied in clinical assessment studies of people with gender dysphoria or intersex conditions.

Terminology

Before the § 1950s and 1960s, the term gender was used exclusively as a grammatical category. [119] [120] The terms male and man, or female and woman, were used more or less interchangeably when referring to people of one sex or the other. As the term gender took on new meaning following the work of John Money [56] [ additional citation(s) needed ], Robert Stoller, and others, a distinction began to be drawn between the terms sex and gender. As a result of the new understanding of gender, academic usage of the term sex began to be more restricted to biological aspects, and associated with the choices male and female, while the term gender was associated initially with man or boy, girl or woman. [120]

Binary gender identities

While academic usage of terms man and woman began to diverge at the same time, and become more restricted to concepts related to gender, [120] this distinction was not universal (and still is not) even in academic usage, and even less so in more informal writing or in speech, which often conflate the two. [121] [122]

Non-binary gender identities

Some people, and some societies, do not construct gender as a binary in which everyone is either a boy or a girl, or a man or a woman. Those who exist outside the binary fall under the umbrella terms non-binary or genderqueer. Some cultures have specific gender roles that are distinct from "man" and "woman." These are often referred to as third genders .

Fa'afafine

In Samoan culture, or Faʻa Samoa, fa'afafine are considered to be a third gender. They are anatomically male but dress and behave in a manner considered typically feminine. According to Tamasailau Sua'ali'i (see references), fa'afafine in Samoa at least are often physiologically unable to reproduce. Fa'afafine are accepted as a natural gender, and neither looked down upon nor discriminated against. [123] Fa'afafine also reinforce their femininity with the fact that they are only attracted to and receive sexual attention from straight masculine men. They have been and generally still are initially identified in terms of labour preferences, as they perform typically feminine household tasks. [124] The Samoan Prime Minister is patron of the Samoa Fa'afafine Association. [125] Translated literally, fa'afafine means "in the manner of a woman." [126]

Hijras

Hijras are officially recognized as third gender in the Indian subcontinent, [127] [128] [129] [130] being considered neither completely male nor female. Hijras have a recorded history in the Indian subcontinent since antiquity, as suggested by the Kama Sutra. Many hijras live in well-defined and organised all-hijra communities, led by a guru. [131] [132] These communities have consisted over generations of those who are in abject poverty or who have been rejected by or fled their family of origin. [133] Many work as sex workers for survival. [134]

The word "hijra" is a Hindustani word. [135] It has traditionally been translated into English as "eunuch" or "hermaphrodite", where "the irregularity of the male genitalia is central to the definition". [133] However, in general hijras are born male, only a few having been born with intersex variations. [136] Some hijras undergo an initiation rite into the hijra community called nirvaan, which involves the removal of the penis, scrotum, and testicles. [134]

Khanith

The khanith form an accepted third gender in Oman. The khanith are male homosexual prostitutes whose dressing is male, featuring pastel colors (rather than white, worn by men), but their mannerisms are female. Khanith can mingle with women, and they often do at weddings or other formal events. Khaniths have their own households, performing all tasks (both male and female). However, similar to men in their society, khaniths can marry women, proving their masculinity by consummating the marriage. Should a divorce or death take place, these men can revert to their status as khaniths at the next wedding. [137]

Two-spirit identities

Many indigenous North American Nations had more than two gender roles. Those who belong to the additional gender categories, beyond cisgender man and woman, are now often collectively termed "two-spirit" or "two-spirited". There are parts of the community that take "two-spirit" as a category over an identity itself, preferring to identify with culture or Nation-specific gender terms. [138]

See also

Related Research Articles

Gender dysphoria (GD) is the distress a person experiences due to a mismatch between their gender identity—their personal sense of their own gender—and their sex assigned at birth. The term replaced the previous diagnostic label of gender identity disorder (GID) in 2013 with the release of the diagnostic manual DSM-5. The condition was renamed to remove the stigma associated with the term disorder. The International Classification of Diseases uses the term gender incongruence instead of gender dysphoria, defined as a marked and persistent mismatch between gender identity and assigned gender, regardless of distress or impairment.

The World Professional Association for Transgender Health (WPATH), formerly the Harry Benjamin International Gender Dysphoria Association (HBIGDA), is a professional organization devoted to the understanding and treatment of gender identity and gender dysphoria, and creating standardized treatment for transgender and gender variant people. WPATH was founded in 1979 and named HBIGDA in honor of Harry Benjamin during a period where there was no clinical consensus on how and when to provide gender-affirming care.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">John Money</span> New Zealand psychologist and sexologist (1921–2006)

John William Money was a New Zealand American psychologist, sexologist and professor at Johns Hopkins University known for his research on human sexual behavior and gender. Believing that gender identity was malleable within the first two years of life, Money advocated for the surgical "normalization" of the genitalia of intersex infants.

The following outline is provided as an overview of and topical guide to transgender topics.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Trans man</span> Man assigned female at birth

A trans man is a man who was assigned female at birth. Trans men have a male gender identity, and many trans men undergo medical and social transition to alter their appearance in a way that aligns with their gender identity or alleviates gender dysphoria.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Emasculation</span> Removal of male sex organs

Emasculation is the removal of the external male sex organs, which includes both the penis and the scrotum, the latter of which contains the testicles. It is distinct from castration, where only the testicles are removed. Although the terms are sometimes used interchangeably, the potential medical consequences of emasculation are more extensive due to the complications arising from the removal of the penis. There are a range of religious, cultural, punitive, and personal reasons why someone may choose to emasculate themselves or another person.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Transgender rights in Iran</span>

Transgender rights in Iran are limited, with a narrow degree of official recognition of transgender identities by the government, but with trans individuals facing very high levels of discrimination, from the law, the state, and from wider society.

<i>The Man Who Would Be Queen</i> 2003 book by J. Michael Bailey

The Man Who Would Be Queen: The Science of Gender-Bending and Transsexualism is a 2003 book by the American psychologist J. Michael Bailey, published by Joseph Henry Press.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Androphilia and gynephilia</span> Sexual orientation to men or women

In behavioral science, androphilia and gynephilia are sexual orientations: Androphilia is sexual attraction to men and/or masculinity; gynephilia is sexual attraction to women and/or femininity. Ambiphilia describes the combination of both androphilia and gynephilia in a given individual, or bisexuality. The terms offer an alternative to a gender binary homosexual and heterosexual conceptualization of sexuality.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Ray Blanchard</span> American-Canadian sexologist (born 1945)

Ray Milton Blanchard III is an American-Canadian sexologist who researches pedophilia, sexual orientation and gender identity. He has found that men with more older brothers are more likely to be gay than men with fewer older brothers, a phenomenon he attributes to the reaction of the mother's immune system to male fetuses. Blanchard has also published research studies on phallometry and several paraphilias, including autoerotic asphyxia. Blanchard also proposed a typology of transsexualism.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Gender nonconformity</span> Non-conventional expression of gender in humans

Gender nonconformity or gender variance is behavior or gender expression by an individual that does not match masculine or feminine gender norms. A gender-nonconforming person may be variant in their gender identity, being transgender or non-binary, or they may be cisgender. In the case of transgender people, they may be perceived, or perceive themselves as, gender-nonconforming before transitioning, but might not be perceived as such after transitioning. Transgender adults who appear gender-nonconforming after transition are more likely to experience discrimination.

The American-Canadian sexologist Ray Blanchard proposed a psychological typology of gender dysphoria, transsexualism, and fetishistic transvestism in a series of academic papers through the 1980s and 1990s. Building on the work of earlier researchers, including his colleague Kurt Freund, Blanchard categorized trans women into two groups: homosexual transsexuals who are attracted exclusively to men and are feminine in both behavior and appearance; and autogynephilic transsexuals who experience sexual arousal at the idea of having a female body. Blanchard and his supporters argue that the typology explains differences between the two groups in childhood gender nonconformity, sexual orientation, history of sexual fetishism, and age of transition.

Gender incongruence is the state of having a gender identity that does not correspond to one's sex assigned at birth. This is experienced by people who identify as transgender or transsexual, and often results in gender dysphoria. The causes of gender incongruence have been studied for decades.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Transgender sexuality</span> Sexuality of transgender people

Sexuality in transgender individuals encompasses all the issues of sexuality of other groups, including establishing a sexual identity, learning to deal with one's sexual needs, and finding a partner, but may be complicated by issues of gender dysphoria, side effects of surgery, physiological and emotional effects of hormone replacement therapy, psychological aspects of expressing sexuality after medical transition, or social aspects of expressing their gender.

The Sex Orientation Scale (SOS) was Harry Benjamin's attempt to classify and understand various forms and subtypes of transvestism and transsexualism in people assigned male at birth, published in 1966. It was a seven-point scale ; it was analogous to the Kinsey Scale as it relates to sexual orientation, which also had seven categories.

The classification of transgender people (transgender women specifically) into distinct groups has been attempted since the mid-1960s. The most common modern classifications in use are the DSM-5 and ICD, which are mainly used for insurance and administration of gender-affirming care.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Transgender</span> Gender identity other than sex assigned at birth

A transgender person is someone whose gender identity differs from that typically associated with the sex they were assigned at birth.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Transsexual</span> People experiencing a gender identity inconsistent with their assigned sex

A transsexual person is someone who experiences a gender identity that is inconsistent with their assigned sex, and desires to permanently transition to the sex or gender with which they identify, usually seeking medical assistance to help them align their body with their identified sex or gender.

Anne Alexandra Lawrence is an American psychologist, sexologist, and physician who has published extensively on gender dysphoria, transgender people, and paraphilias. Lawrence is a transgender woman and self-identifies as autogynephilic. She is best known for her 2013 book on autogynephilia, Men Trapped in Men's Bodies: Narratives of Autogynephilic Transsexualism, which has been regarded by Ray Blanchard as the definitive text on the subject. Lawrence is one of the major researchers in the area of Blanchard's etiological typology of transgender women and has been one of the most major proponents of the theory. While Blanchard's typology and autogynephilia are highly controversial subjects and are not accepted by many transgender women and academics, some, such as Lawrence, identify with autogynephilia. Lawrence's work also extends beyond Blanchard's typology, to transgender women and to transition more generally.

References

  1. 1 2 Morrow DF (2006). "Sexual Orientation and Gender Identity Expression.". In Morrow DF, Messinger L (eds.). Sexual orientation and gender expression in social work practice: working with gay, lesbian, bisexual, and transgender people. New York: Columbia University Press. pp. 3–17 (8). ISBN   978-0-231-50186-6. Archived from the original on 19 December 2021. Retrieved 19 December 2021. Gender identity refers to an individual's personal sense of identity as masculine or feminine, or some combination thereof.
  2. ↑ Bhargava A, Arnold AP, Bangasser DA, Denton KM, Gupta A, Hilliard Krause LM, et al. (May 2021). "Considering Sex as a Biological Variable in Basic and Clinical Studies: An Endocrine Society Scientific Statement". Endocrine Reviews. 42 (3): 219–258. doi:10.1210/endrev/bnaa034. PMC   8348944 . PMID   33704446.
  3. ↑ Summers RW (2016). Social Psychology: How Other People Influence Our Thoughts and Actions [2 volumes]. ABC-CLIO. p. 232. ISBN   9781610695923.
  4. ↑ American Psychological Association (December 2015). "Guidelines for psychological practice with transgender and gender nonconforming people". The American Psychologist. 70 (9): 832–864. doi:10.1037/a0039906. PMID   26653312. S2CID   1751773.
  5. ↑ "Dr. John Money, pioneer in sexual identity, dies". NBC News . 9 July 2006. Archived from the original on 16 January 2022. Retrieved 16 January 2022.
  6. ↑ Bevan TE (2015). The psychobiology of transsexualism and transgenderism: a new view based on scientific evidence. Santa Barbara, California: Bloomsbury. p. 40. ISBN   978-1440831270.
  7. ↑ Stoller RJ (November 1964). "The Hermaphroditic Identity of Hermaphrodites". The Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease. 139 (5): 453–457. doi:10.1097/00005053-196411000-00005. PMID   14227492. S2CID   22585295.
  8. 1 2 Martin GN, Carlson NR, Buskist W (2009). "Psychology and Neuroscience". Psychology: The Science of Behaviour (4th ed.). Toronto, Canada: Pearson. pp. 140–141. ISBN   978-0-205-64524-4. Archived from the original on 19 December 2021. Retrieved 19 December 2021.
  9. ↑ Eller JD (2015). Culture and diversity in the United States: so many ways to be American. Abingdon, Oxon: Routledge. p. 137. ISBN   978-1-317-57578-8. most Western societies, including the United States, traditionally operate with a binary notion of sex/gender
  10. ↑ "Sexual Orientation & Homosexuality". American Psychological Association. 2020. Archived from the original on 16 February 2019. Retrieved 6 February 2020.
  11. ↑ MacKenzie GO (1994). Transgender nation. Bowling Green, OH: Popular Press. p. 43. ISBN   978-0-87972-596-9. transvestites [who do not identify with the dress assigned to their sex] existed in almost all societies; Zastrow C (2013). Introduction to Social Work and Social Welfare: Empowering People. p. 234. ISBN   978-1-285-54580-6. There are records of males and females crossing over throughout history and in virtually every culture. It is simply a naturally occurring part of all societies. (quoting the North Alabama Gender Center)
  12. 1 2 Bukatko D, Daehler MW (2004). Child Development: A Thematic Approach . Houghton Mifflin. p.  495. ISBN   978-0-618-33338-7.
  13. 1 2 Hine FR, Carson RC, Maddox GL, Thompson Jr RJ, Williams RB (2012). Introduction to Behavioral Science in Medicine. Springer Science & Business Media. p. 106. ISBN   978-1-4612-5452-2. Archived from the original on 1 July 2020. Retrieved 8 January 2020.
  14. 1 2 "Transgender Health". www.endocrine.org. 16 December 2020. Archived from the original on 10 October 2022. Retrieved 13 October 2022.
  15. ↑ "Gender identity". Encyclopædia Britannica . Archived from the original on 12 October 2023. Retrieved 13 October 2022.
  16. 1 2 3 4 5 6 Solomon K (11 November 2013). Men in Transition: Theory and Therapy. Springer Science & Business Media. pp. 101–102. ISBN   978-1-4684-4211-3. Archived from the original on 3 February 2021. Retrieved 10 January 2021. Gender identity is the individual's personal and private experience of his/her gender.
  17. ↑ A few authorities say it forms between ages 3 and 4 rather than precisely at age 3, e.g. Bryjak GJ, Soraka MP (1997). Hanson K (ed.). Sociology: Cultural Diversity in a Changing World. Allyn & Bacon. pp. 209–45.
  18. 1 2 3 Newmann B (20 December 2012). Development Through Life: A Psychosocial Approach. Cengage Learning. p. 243. ISBN   978-1111344665. Archived from the original on 3 February 2021. Retrieved 2 July 2015.
  19. ↑ Christopher Bates Doob, Social Inequality and Social Stratification in US Society
  20. ↑ Martin C, Ruble D (2004). "Children's Search for Gender Cues Cognitive Perspectives on Gender Development". Current Directions in Psychological Science. 13 (2): 67–70. doi:10.1111/j.0963-7214.2004.00276.x. S2CID   33579865.
  21. ↑ International technical guidance on sexuality education: An evidence-informed approach (PDF). Paris: UNESCO. 2018. p. 18. ISBN   978-92-3-100259-5. Archived (PDF) from the original on 13 November 2018. Retrieved 23 February 2018.
  22. 1 2 Zhu YS, Cai LQ (April 2006). "Effects of male sex hormones on gender identity, sexual behavior, and cognitive function". Zhong Nan da Xue Xue Bao. Yi Xue Ban = Journal of Central South University. Medical Sciences. 31 (2): 149–61. PMID   16706106.
  23. 1 2 Bakker, Julie (2014), Kreukels, Baudewijntje P.C.; Steensma, Thomas D.; de Vries, Annelou L.C. (eds.), "Sex Differentiation: Organizing Effects of Sex Hormones", Gender Dysphoria and Disorders of Sex Development: Progress in Care and Knowledge, Focus on Sexuality Research, Boston, MA: Springer US, pp. 3–23, doi:10.1007/978-1-4614-7441-8_1, ISBN   978-1-4614-7441-8 , retrieved 21 October 2024
  24. ↑ Henslin JM (2001). Essentials of Sociology. Taylor & Francis. pp. 65–67, 240. ISBN   978-0-536-94185-5.
  25. 1 2 Myers DG (2008). Psychology. New York: Worth.
  26. ↑ Martin CL, Ruble DN, Szkrybalo J (November 2002). "Cognitive theories of early gender development". Psychological Bulletin. 128 (6): 903–933. CiteSeerX   10.1.1.460.3216 . doi:10.1037/0033-2909.128.6.903. PMID   12405137.
  27. ↑ Polderman TJ, Kreukels BP, Irwig MS, Beach L, Chan YM, Derks EM, et al. (March 2018). "The Biological Contributions to Gender Identity and Gender Diversity: Bringing Data to the Table". Behavior Genetics. 48 (2): 95–108. doi:10.1007/s10519-018-9889-z. hdl:1871.1/acbbef10-1339-495d-8cc6-0d3f02742596. PMID   29460079.
  28. ↑ Zucker KJ (2006). Sytsma SE (ed.). Ethics and Intersex. Springer Netherlands. p. 167. ISBN   978-1-4020-4313-0. Archived from the original on 8 March 2021. Retrieved 14 January 2020.
  29. 1 2 3 "NOVA | Transcripts | Sex: Unknown | PBS". www.pbs.org. Archived from the original on 11 October 2011. Retrieved 7 December 2018.
  30. 1 2 3 Colapinto J (2006). As Nature Made Him: The Boy Who Was Raised as a Girl (1st Harper Perennial ed.). New York: HarperCollins. pp. 19–20. ISBN   978-0061120565. OCLC   71012749.
  31. ↑ "Sex: Unknown". Nova. 2001. PBS. Transcript.
  32. ↑ Nolen-Hoeksema S (2014). Abnormal Psychology (6 ed.). McGraw-Hill. p. 368. ISBN   978-1-308-21150-3.
  33. ↑ Diamond, Milton; Sigmundson, H. Keith (1 March 1997). "Sex Reassignment at Birth: Long-term Review and Clinical Implications". Archives of Pediatrics & Adolescent Medicine. 151 (3): 298–304. doi:10.1001/archpedi.1997.02170400084015. PMID   9080940.
  34. ↑ Bradley SJ, Oliver GD, Chernick AB, Zucker KJ (July 1998). "Experiment of nurture: ablatio penis at 2 months, sex reassignment at 7 months, and a psychosexual follow-up in young adulthood". Pediatrics. 102 (1): e9. doi: 10.1542/peds.102.1.e9 . PMID   9651461. The present case report is a long-term psychosexual follow-up on a second case of ablatio penis in a 46 XY male.
  35. ↑ Vandermassen G (2005). Who's Afraid of Charles Darwin?: Debating Feminism and Evolutionary Theory. Lanham: Rowman & Littlefield Publishers. pp. 112–113. ISBN   978-1-4616-4707-2.
  36. ↑ Reiner WG, Gearhart JP (January 2004). "Discordant sexual identity in some genetic males with cloacal exstrophy assigned to female sex at birth". The New England Journal of Medicine. 350 (4): 333–41. doi:10.1056/NEJMoa022236. PMC   1421517 . PMID   14736925.
  37. ↑ Meyer-Bahlburg HF (August 2005). "Gender identity outcome in female-raised 46, XY persons with penile agenesis, cloacal exstrophy of the bladder, or penile ablation". Archives of Sexual Behavior. 34 (4): 423–438. doi:10.1007/s10508-005-4342-9. PMID   16010465. S2CID   34971769.
  38. ↑ Saraswat A, Weinand JD, Safer JD (February 2015). "Evidence supporting the biologic nature of gender identity". Endocrine Practice. 21 (2): 199–204. doi:10.4158/EP14351.RA. PMID   25667367.
  39. ↑ Rebelo E, Szabo CP, Pitcher G (March 2008). "Gender assignment surgery on children with disorders of sex development: a case report and discussion from South Africa". Journal of Child Health Care. 12 (1): 49–59. doi:10.1177/1367493507085618. PMID   18287184. S2CID   46058150.
  40. 1 2 Ghosh S. "Gender Identity". MedScape. Archived from the original on 6 March 2021. Retrieved 29 October 2012.
  41. ↑ Balthazart J (2012). The Biology of Homosexuality. Oxford University Press, USA. p. 5. ISBN   978-0-19-983882-0. Archived from the original on 17 February 2022. Retrieved 18 September 2021.
  42. ↑ Ryan MJ (16 January 2018). A Taste for the Beautiful: The Evolution of Attraction. Princeton University Press. p. 9. ISBN   978-1-4008-8915-0. Archived from the original on 11 March 2022. Retrieved 18 September 2021.
  43. ↑ Vilain E (July 2006). "Genetics of intersexuality". Journal of Gay & Lesbian Psychotherapy. 10 (2): 9–26. doi:10.1300/J236v10n02_02. S2CID   142998821.
  44. ↑ Fleming A, Vilain E (January 2005). "The endless quest for sex determination genes". Clinical Genetics. 67 (1): 15–25. doi:10.1111/j.1399-0004.2004.00376.x. PMID   15617542. S2CID   7595544.
  45. ↑ Savic I, Arver S (November 2011). "Sex dimorphism of the brain in male-to-female transsexuals". Cerebral Cortex. 21 (11): 2525–2533. doi: 10.1093/cercor/bhr032 . PMID   21467211. Concluded that gynephilic trans women had brains like men's, but in a few areas, trans women's brains were different from both men's and women's brains.
  46. ↑ Gizewski ER, Krause E, Schlamann M, Happich F, Ladd ME, Forsting M, Senf W (February 2009). "Specific cerebral activation due to visual erotic stimuli in male-to-female transsexuals compared with male and female controls: an fMRI study". The Journal of Sexual Medicine. 6 (2): 440–448. doi:10.1111/j.1743-6109.2008.00981.x. PMID   18761592. Found that a sample of androphilic trans women was shifted towards the female direction in brain responses.
  47. ↑ Rametti G, Carrillo B, Gómez-Gil E, Junque C, Segovia S, Gomez Á, Guillamon A (February 2011). "White matter microstructure in female to male transsexuals before cross-sex hormonal treatment. A diffusion tensor imaging study". Journal of Psychiatric Research. 45 (2): 199–204. doi:10.1016/j.jpsychires.2010.05.006. PMID   20562024. Found that the white matter pattern in gynephilic trans men was shifted in the direction of biological males even before the female-to-male transsexuals started taking male hormones.
  48. ↑ Carlsson NR (2010). Psychology: The Science of Behavior (7th ed.). Boston: Allyn & Bacon. p. 418. ISBN   978-0-205-54786-9.
  49. ↑ Zhou JN, Hofman MA, Gooren LJ, Swaab DF (November 1995). "A sex difference in the human brain and its relation to transsexuality". Nature (Submitted manuscript). 378 (6552): 68–70. Bibcode:1995Natur.378...68Z. doi:10.1038/378068a0. hdl: 20.500.11755/9da6a0a1-f622-44f3-ac4f-fec297a7c6c2 . PMID   7477289. S2CID   4344570. Archived from the original on 29 August 2017. Retrieved 6 September 2018.
  50. ↑ Rosenthal SM (December 2014). "Approach to the patient: transgender youth: endocrine considerations". The Journal of Clinical Endocrinology and Metabolism. 99 (12): 4379–4389. doi: 10.1210/jc.2014-1919 . PMID   25140398. the sexually dimorphic differentiation of the BSTc in humans is not present until puberty, in contrast to rats, where such differences in the BST occur in the early postnatal period and apparently require perinatal differences in T levels (44, 45). Given that many transgender adolescents experience significant gender dysphoria before puberty (and before sex differences in BSTc volume emerge), the relationship between BSTc volume and gender identity would appear to be unclear.
  51. ↑ LeVay S (August 1991). "A difference in hypothalamic structure between heterosexual and homosexual men". Science. 253 (5023): 1034–1037. Bibcode:1991Sci...253.1034L. doi:10.1126/science.1887219. PMID   1887219. S2CID   1674111.
  52. ↑ Byne W, Tobet S, Mattiace LA, Lasco MS, Kemether E, Edgar MA, et al. (September 2001). "The interstitial nuclei of the human anterior hypothalamus: an investigation of variation with sex, sexual orientation, and HIV status". Hormones and Behavior. 40 (2): 86–92. doi:10.1006/hbeh.2001.1680. PMID   11534967. S2CID   3175414.
  53. ↑ Klink, Daniel (2013). "Genetic Aspects of Gender Identity Development and Gender Dysphoria". Gender Dysphoria and Disorders of Sex Development. Focus on Sexuality Research. Springer. pp. 25–51. doi:10.1007/978-1-4614-7441-8_2. ISBN   978-1-4614-7440-1.
  54. 1 2 Oswalt A. "Factors Influencing Gender Identity". Seven Countries Services, Inc. Archived from the original on 18 December 2010. Retrieved 29 October 2012.
  55. ↑ Kiecolt KJ, Hughes M, Momplaisir H (2019). "Gender Identity Among U.S. Adults". In Stets JE, Serpe RT (eds.). Identities in Everyday Life. Oxford University Press. p. 195. ISBN   978-0-1908-7306-6. Archived from the original on 3 February 2021. Retrieved 7 June 2020.
  56. 1 2 Money J, Hampson JG, Hampson JL (October 1955). "An examination of some basic sexual concepts: the evidence of human hermaphroditism". Bulletin of the Johns Hopkins Hospital. 97 (4): 301–19. PMID   13260820. Archived from the original on 6 December 2022. Retrieved 6 December 2022.
  57. 1 2 3 4 Kreukels BP, Steensma TD, de Vries AL (2014). Gender dysphoria and disorders of sex development: progress in care and knowledge. New York: Springer. ISBN   978-1-4614-7441-8.
  58. ↑ Fausto-Sterling A (2000). Sexing the body: gender politics and the construction of sexuality (1st ed.). New York, NY: Basic Books. ISBN   978-0-465-07713-7.
  59. ↑ Swaab DF (December 2004). "Sexual differentiation of the human brain: relevance for gender identity, transsexualism and sexual orientation". Gynecological Endocrinology. 19 (6): 301–12. doi:10.1080/09513590400018231. PMID   15724806. S2CID   1410435. ...direct effects of testosterone on the developing fetal brain are of major importance for the development of male gender identity and male heterosexual orientation. Solid evidence for the importance of postnatal social factors is lacking.
  60. ↑ Wallien MS, Cohen-Kettenis PT (December 2008). "Psychosexual outcome of gender-dysphoric children". Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry. 47 (12): 1413–23. doi:10.1097/CHI.0b013e31818956b9. PMID   18981931.
  61. ↑ Weinraub M, Clemens LP, Sockloff A, Ethridge T, Gracely E, Myers B (August 1984). "The development of sex role stereotypes in the third year: relationships to gender labeling, gender identity, sex-typed toy preference, and family characteristics". Child Development. 55 (4): 1493–503. doi:10.2307/1130019. JSTOR   1130019. PMID   6488962. Previous investigators have failed to observe a relationship between parental attitudes and children's early sex role acquisition...
  62. 1 2 3 4 Spade J (2010). The Kaleidoscope of Gender. London: Sage. pp.  177–84. ISBN   978-1-4129-7906-1.
  63. 1 2 Halpern HP, Perry-Jenkins M (May 2016). "Parents' Gender Ideology and Gendered Behavior as Predictors of Children's Gender-Role Attitudes: A Longitudinal Exploration". Sex Roles. 74 (11): 527–542. doi:10.1007/s11199-015-0539-0. PMC   4945126 . PMID   27445431.
  64. ↑ Blackless M, Charuvastra A, Derryck A, Fausto-Sterling A, Lauzanne K, Lee E (March 2000). "How sexually dimorphic are we? Review and synthesis". American Journal of Human Biology. 12 (2): 151–166. doi:10.1002/(SICI)1520-6300(200003/04)12:2<151::AID-AJHB1>3.0.CO;2-F. PMID   11534012. S2CID   453278.
  65. ↑ Sax L (August 2002). "How common is intersex? a response to Anne Fausto-Sterling". Journal of Sex Research. 39 (3): 174–178. doi:10.1080/00224490209552139. PMID   12476264. S2CID   33795209.
  66. ↑ "Free & Equal Campaign Fact Sheet: Intersex" (PDF). United Nations Office of the High Commissioner for Human Rights. 2015. Archived (PDF) from the original on 4 March 2016. Retrieved 28 March 2016.
  67. ↑ Mieszczak J, Houk CP, Lee PA (August 2009). "Assignment of the sex of rearing in the neonate with a disorder of sex development". Current Opinion in Pediatrics. 21 (4): 541–547. doi:10.1097/mop.0b013e32832c6d2c. PMC   4104182 . PMID   19444113.
  68. ↑ Council of Europe; Commissioner for Human Rights (April 2015), Human rights and intersex people, Issue Paper, archived from the original on 6 January 2016, retrieved 11 March 2022
  69. 1 2 On the management of differences of sex development. Ethical issues relating to "intersexuality".Opinion No. 20/2012 (PDF). Berne: Swiss National Advisory Commission on Biomedical Ethics NEK-CNE. November 2012. Archived from the original (PDF) on 23 April 2015. Retrieved 6 October 2016.
  70. ↑ World Health Organization (2015). Sexual health, human rights and the law. Geneva: World Health Organization. ISBN   978-9241564984.
  71. ↑ Meyer-Bahlburg HF (August 2005). "Gender identity outcome in female-raised 46,XY persons with penile agenesis, cloacal exstrophy of the bladder, or penile ablation". Archives of Sexual Behavior. 34 (4): 423–438. doi:10.1007/s10508-005-4342-9. PMID   16010465. S2CID   34971769.
  72. ↑ Furtado PS, Moraes F, Lago R, Barros LO, Toralles MB, Barroso U (November 2012). "Gender dysphoria associated with disorders of sex development". Nature Reviews. Urology. 9 (11): 620–627. doi:10.1038/nrurol.2012.182. PMID   23045263. S2CID   22294512.
  73. ↑ "New publication "Intersex: Stories and Statistics from Australia"". Organisation Intersex International Australia . 3 February 2016. Archived from the original on 29 August 2016. Retrieved 18 August 2016.
  74. ↑ Jones T, Hart B, Carpenter M, Ansara G, Leonard W, Lucke J (2016). Intersex: Stories and Statistics from Australia (PDF). Cambridge, UK: Open Book Publishers. ISBN   978-1-78374-208-0. Archived from the original (PDF) on 14 September 2016. Retrieved 2 February 2016.
  75. 1 2 Rosario V. "Reiner & Gearhart's NEJM Study on Cloacal Exstrophy – Review by Vernon Rosario, M.D., Ph.D". Intersex Society of North America . Archived from the original on 19 February 2013. Retrieved 4 April 2011.
  76. ↑ Hoogensen G, Rottem SB (29 June 2016). "Gender Identity and the Subject of Security". Security Dialogue. 35 (2): 155–71. doi: 10.1177/0967010604044974 . S2CID   55600340 .
  77. ↑ "Nondiscrimination Laws". Movement Advancement Project. Archived from the original on 27 December 2023.
  78. ↑ Besser M, Carr S, Cohen-Kettenis PT, Connolly P, De Sutter P, Diamond M, et al. (2003). "Atypical Gender Development – A Review". International Journal of Transgenderism. 9: 29–44. doi:10.1300/J485v09n01_04. S2CID   216148638. Archived from the original on 7 October 2008. Retrieved 28 September 2008.
  79. ↑ "Toronto couple defend move to keep baby's sex secret". BBC News. 27 May 2011. Archived from the original on 11 March 2018. Retrieved 21 July 2018.
  80. ↑ "Words Matter: Affirming Gender Identity Through Language". 18 May 2016. Archived from the original on 1 August 2017. Retrieved 24 October 2016.
  81. ↑ Vance SR (October 2018). "The Importance of Getting the Name Right for Transgender and Other Gender Expansive Youth". The Journal of Adolescent Health. 63 (4): 379–380. doi:10.1016/j.jadohealth.2018.07.022. PMID   30286897. S2CID   52921901.
  82. ↑ Maizes V (2015). Integrative women's health (Second ed.). Oxford: Oxford University Press. p. 745. ISBN   978-0-19-021480-7. Many transgender people experience gender dysphoria –distress that results from the discordance of biological sex and experienced gender (American Psychiatric Association, 2013). Treatment for gender dysphoria, considered to be highly effective, includes physical, medical, and/or surgical treatments [...] some [transgender people] may not choose to transition at all.
  83. ↑ "U.S. Sex Reassignment Surgery Market Report, 2022-2030". Archived from the original on 4 December 2022. Retrieved 4 December 2022.
  84. ↑ Wallach, Sara; Garner, Alex; Howell, Sean; Adamson, Tyler; Baral, Stefan; Beyrer, Chris (December 2020). "Address Exacerbated Health Disparities and Risks to LGBTQ+ Individuals during COVID-19". Health and Human Rights. 22 (2): 313–316. PMC   7762918 . PMID   33390717.
  85. 1 2 "The term 'gender identity' was used in a press release, November 21, 1966, to announce the new clinic for transsexuals at The Johns Hopkins Hospital. It was disseminated in the media worldwide, and soon entered the vernacular. ... gender identity is your own sense or conviction of maleness or femaleness." Money J (1994). "The concept of gender identity disorder in childhood and adolescence after 39 years". Journal of Sex & Marital Therapy. 20 (3): 163–177. doi:10.1080/00926239408403428. PMID   7996589.
  86. ↑ Unge RK (2001). Handbook of the psychology of women and gender. New York: Wiley. p. 102. ISBN   978-0-471-65357-8. Gender identity was introduced into the professional lexicon by Hooker and Stoller almost simultaneously in the early 1960s (see Money, 1985). For example, Stoller (1964) used the slightly different term core gender identity...
  87. ↑ Brym RJ, Lie J, Roberts LW, Rytina S (2012). Sociology: Your Compass for a New World (4th Canadian ed.). Toronto: Nelson Education. ISBN   978-0-17-650386-4.
  88. ↑ "Gender, gender identity, and gender expression". Archived from the original on 13 April 2021. Retrieved 4 December 2022.
  89. ↑ White Hughto, Jaclyn M.; Reisner, Sari L.; Pachankis, John E. (December 2015). "Transgender Stigma and Health: A Critical Review of Stigma Determinants, Mechanisms, and Interventions". Social Science & Medicine. 147: 222–231. doi:10.1016/j.socscimed.2015.11.010. PMC   4689648 . PMID   26599625.
  90. 1 2 Padawer, Ruth (8 August 2012). "What's So Bad About a Boy Who Wants to Wear a Dress?". The New York Times. Archived from the original on 25 October 2012. Retrieved 27 February 2017.
  91. ↑ Khan, Farah Naz (16 November 2016). "A History of Transgender Health Care". Scientific American . Archived from the original on 8 December 2023. Retrieved 16 December 2023.
  92. ↑ Chiang, Howard H. (18 November 2010). "Liberating sex, knowing desire: scientia sexualis and epistemic turning points in the history of sexuality". History of the Human Sciences . 25 (5): 42–69. doi:10.1177/0952695110378947. PMID   21322413. S2CID   26766140.
  93. ↑ Ruse, Michael (1988), Homosexuality: A Philosophical Inquiry, New York: Basil Blackwell, ISBN   0-631-15275-X
  94. ↑ Freud S (1931). "Female Sexuality". The Standard Edition of the Complete Psychological Works of Sigmund Freud. Vol. 21. p. 229.
  95. ↑ Parker, Richard Guy; Aggleton, Peter (1999). Culture, Society and Sexuality: A Reader. Psychology Press. p. 80. ISBN   9781857288117. Archived from the original on 22 February 2024. Retrieved 18 December 2023.
  96. ↑ Haraway D (1991). Simians, Cyborgs, and Women: The Reinvention of Nature. London: Free Association Books. p. 133. ISBN   978-0-415-90386-8.
  97. ↑ Karkazis K (November 2008). Fixing Sex: Intersex, Medical Authority, and Lived Experience . Duke University Press. ISBN   978-0-8223-4318-9.
  98. ↑ Butler J (1990). Gender Trouble: Feminism and the Subversion of Identity. London: Routledge. pp. front/backmatter. ISBN   978-0415389556.
  99. ↑ Mikkola, Mari (2023). "Feminist Perspectives on Sex and Gender". The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Fall 2023 ed.). Metaphysics Research Lab (Stanford University). Archived from the original on 1 June 2022. Retrieved 17 December 2023.
  100. ↑ Tristani-Firouzi, Bita; Veith, Jacob; Simpson, Andrew; Hoerger, Kelly; Rivera, Andy; Agarwalb, Cori A. (12 August 2021). "Preferences for and barriers to gender affirming surgeries in transgender and non-binary individuals". International Journal of Transgender Health . 23 (4): 458–471. doi:10.1080/26895269.2021.1926391. PMC   9621289 . PMID   36324882.
  101. ↑ Behrens, Kevin G. (December 2020). "A principled ethical approach to intersex paediatric surgeries". BMC Medical Ethics. 21 (1): 108. doi: 10.1186/s12910-020-00550-x . PMC   7597036 . PMID   33121480.
  102. ↑ Diamond, Milton (July 2002). "Sex and Gender are Different: Sexual Identity and Gender Identity are Different". Clinical Child Psychology and Psychiatry. 7 (3): 320–334. doi:10.1177/1359104502007003002. S2CID   144721800.
  103. ↑ Baker K (16 October 2012). "FAQ: Collecting Sexual Orientation and Gender Identity Data". Center for American Progress. Archived from the original on 25 October 2012. Retrieved 29 October 2012.
  104. 1 2 Simmons-Duffin, Selena (12 June 2020). "Transgender Health Protections Reversed by Trump Administration". NPR. Archived from the original on 23 June 2020. Retrieved 4 December 2022.
  105. ↑ "Gender Identity Disorder". Psychology Today. 24 October 2005. Archived from the original on 6 March 2021. Retrieved 16 December 2010.
  106. ↑ "Gender Dysphoria Organization Research and Education - About Gender Dysphoria". 6 March 2010. Archived from the original on 6 March 2010. Retrieved 13 May 2021.
  107. 1 2 Zucker KJ, Spitzer RL (January–February 2005). "Was the gender identity disorder of childhood diagnosis introduced into DSM-III as a backdoor maneuver to replace homosexuality? A historical note". Journal of Sex & Marital Therapy. 31 (1): 31–42. doi:10.1080/00926230590475251. PMID   15841704. S2CID   22589255.
  108. ↑ Parry W (4 June 2013). "DSM-5 Reflects Shift In Perspective On Gender Identity". The Huffington Post. Archived from the original on 8 May 2016. Retrieved 23 October 2015.
  109. ↑ Kennedy, RM; Farley, Lisa (2019). "Transgender Children". Childhood Studies. doi:10.1093/OBO/9780199791231-0215. ISBN   978-0-19-979123-1.
  110. ↑ "ICD-11 for Mortality and Morbidity Statistics". Archived from the original on 1 August 2018. Retrieved 4 December 2022.
  111. ↑ The Yogyakarta Principles, Principle 3. The Right to recognition before the law
  112. ↑ The Yogyakarta Principles, Principle 18. Protection from medical abuse
  113. ↑ O'Flaherty M, Williams G (2007). "Jurisprudential Annotations to the Yogyakarta Principles" (PDF). Human Rights Law Centre. University of Nottingham. p. 43. Archived from the original (PDF) on 22 November 2010.
  114. ↑ Quinn S (2010). An activist's guide to the yogyakarta principles on the application of international human rights law in relation to sexual orientation and gender identity (PDF). Nicholson & Bass Limited. p. 100. Archived from the original (PDF) on 4 January 2017. Retrieved 14 February 2018.
  115. ↑ Obergefell et al. V. Hodges, Director, Ohio Department of Health, et al.(U.S. Supreme Court26 June 2015), Text .
  116. ↑ Dahlen S (March 2020). "De-sexing the Medical Record? An Examination of Sex Versus Gender Identity in the General Medical Council's Trans Healthcare Ethical Advice". The New Bioethics. 26 (1): 38–52. doi: 10.1080/20502877.2020.1720429 . PMID   32011214. No genetic marker, biochemical test, brain imaging, or objective measurement exists in medical practice for gender identity, which is itself of an unknown aetiology (NHS 2016, Bizic et al. 2018, Gerritse et al. 2018, Bewley et al. 2019). The central claim rests on a consistent declarative statement of the trans patient's subjective experience of self-hood. Therefore, we cannot prove or disprove a gender identity. Gender identity is a deeply held, spiritually significant, personal belief that can neither be confirmed nor rebutted by external evidence and biological data.
  117. ↑ Griffin L, Clyde K, Byng R, Bewley S (October 2021). "Sex, gender and gender identity: a re-evaluation of the evidence". BJPsych Bulletin. 45 (5): 291–299. doi: 10.1192/bjb.2020.73 . PMC   8596152 . PMID   32690121. As a pure subjective experience, it may be overwhelming and powerful but is also unverifiable and unfalsifiable.
  118. ↑ Zucker KJ (August 2005). "Measurement of psychosexual differentiation". Archives of Sexual Behavior. 34 (4): 375–388. doi:10.1007/s10508-005-4336-7. PMID   16010461. S2CID   18953324.
  119. ↑ Udry, J. Richard (November 1994). "The Nature of Gender". Demography. 31 (4): 561–573. doi: 10.2307/2061790 . JSTOR   2061790. PMID   7890091.
  120. 1 2 3 Haig, David (April 2004). "The Inexorable Rise of Gender and the Decline of Sex: Social Change in Academic Titles, 1945–2001". Archives of Sexual Behavior. 33 (2): 87–96. CiteSeerX   10.1.1.359.9143 . doi:10.1023/B:ASEB.0000014323.56281.0d. PMID   15146141. S2CID   7005542.
  121. ↑ Stuhlsatz, Molly A. M.; Buck Bracey, Zoë E.; Donovan, Brian M. (December 2020). "Investigating Conflation of Sex and Gender Language in Student Writing About Genetics". Science & Education. 29 (6): 1567–1594. Bibcode:2020Sc&Ed..29.1567S. doi:10.1007/s11191-020-00177-9. S2CID   229490367. However, 40% of the students in the genetics of human sex condition and 16% in the genetics of plant sex condition used gender language in their responses. The patterns associated with students who use gender language in their responses in the genetics of plant or human sex conditions are indicative of conflation. ...Conflation of biological sex and gender has been shown to engender unscientific essentialist beliefs about the nature of human difference that could manifest in sexism and transphobia.
  122. ↑ Hall, Jennifer; Jao, Limin; Di Placido, Cinzia; Manikis, Rebecca (July 2021). "'Deep questions for a Saturday morning': An investigation of the Australian and Canadian general public's definitions of gender". Social Science Quarterly. 102 (4). Wiley-Blackwell: 1866–1881. doi:10.1111/ssqu.13021. S2CID   238679176. Archived from the original on 4 December 2023. Retrieved 13 January 2024. The next most common response category pertained to responses in which participants simply provided the terms male and female, without any further description or explanation. Examples of such responses included: 'Gender would be male/female' (A2P45) and 'Male or female' (C3P48). ... As shown, similar proportions of Australian and Canadian participants provided responses that were coded as Feelings/Identification or that were coded as Biology. The stark difference in response patterns by country pertained to responses that were coded as Male/Female: This was the modal category for the Australian participants, with nearly one‐third of participants providing such a response, whereas Male/Female was not even in the top three response categories for the Canadian participants.
  123. ↑ Sua'ali'i T (2001). "Samoans and Gender: Some Reflections on Male, Female and Fa'afafine Gender Identities". Tangata o te moana nui: the evolving identities of Pacific peoples in Aotearoa /New Zealand. Palmerston North, N.Z.: Dunmore Press. ISBN   978-0-86469-369-3.
  124. ↑ Schmidt J (May 2003). "Paradise Lost? Social Change and Fa'afafine in Samoa". Current Sociology. 51 (3): 417–32. doi:10.1177/0011392103051003014. S2CID   145438114.
  125. ↑ Field M (5 July 2011). "Transsexuals hailed by Samoan PM". Stuff.co.nz . Archived from the original on 10 October 2018. Retrieved 1 October 2011.
  126. ↑ Vasey PL, Bartlett NH (2007). "What can the Samoan "Fa'afafine" teach us about the Western concept of gender identity disorder in childhood?". Perspectives in Biology and Medicine. 50 (4): 481–90. doi:10.1353/pbm.2007.0056. PMID   17951883. S2CID   37437172.
  127. ↑ Shaw SM, Barbour NS, Duncan P, Freehling-Burton K, Nichols J, eds. (2017). Women's Lives around the World: A Global Encyclopedia [4 volumes]. ABC-CLIO. ISBN   978-1-61069-712-5. Archived from the original on 19 December 2021. Retrieved 19 December 2021.
  128. ↑ Bevan TE (2016). Being Transgender: What You Should Know. ABC-CLIO. p. 70. ISBN   9781440845253. Archived from the original on 19 December 2021. Retrieved 19 December 2021.
  129. ↑ Pasquesoone V (9 April 2014). "7 Countries Giving Transgender People Fundamental Rights the U.S. Still Won't". mic.com. Archived from the original on 3 March 2015. Retrieved 17 June 2016.
  130. ↑ "Hijras and Bangladesh: The creation of a third gender". pandeia.eu. 2 December 2013. Archived from the original on 5 July 2016. Retrieved 17 June 2016.
  131. ↑ Nanda S (1985). "The hijras of India: cultural and individual dimensions of an institutionalized third gender role". Journal of Homosexuality. 11 (3–4): 35–54. doi:10.1300/J082v11n03_03. PMID   4093603. The most significant relationship in the hijra community is that of the guru (master, teacher) and chela (disciple).
  132. ↑ Cohen L (1995). "The Pleasures of Castration: the postoperative status of hijras, jankhas and academics". In Abramson PR, Pinkerton SD (eds.). Sexual Nature/Sexual Culture. University of Chicago Press. ISBN   978-0-226-00182-1. Archived from the original on 19 December 2021. Retrieved 19 December 2021. Hijras are organized into households with a hijra guru as head, into territories delimiting where each household can dance and demand money from merchants
  133. 1 2 Nanda S (1999). Neither Man Nor Woman: The Hijras of India. Wadsworth Publishing Company. p. 116. ISBN   978-0-534-50903-3. Archived from the original on 19 December 2021. Retrieved 19 December 2021. None of the hijra narratives I recorded supports the widespread belief in India that hijras recruit their membership by making successful claims on intersex infants. Instead, it appears that most hijras join the community in their youth, either out of a desire to more fully express their feminine gender identity, under the pressure of poverty, because of ill-treatment by parents and peers for feminine behavior, after a period of homosexual prostitution or for a combination of these reasons.
  134. 1 2 Nanda S (1996). "Hijras: An Alternative Sex and Gender Role in India". In Herdt GH (ed.). Third sex, third gender: beyond sexual dimorphism in culture and history. Zone Books. ISBN   978-0-942299-82-3. Archived from the original on 11 March 2022. Retrieved 19 December 2021.
  135. ↑ Reddy G (2010). With Respect to Sex: Negotiating Hijra Identity in South India. University of Chicago Press. p. 243. ISBN   978-0-226-70754-9. Archived from the original on 19 December 2021. Retrieved 19 December 2021. By and large, the Hindi/Urdu term hijra is used more often in the north of the country, whereas the Telugu term kojja is more specific to the state of Andhra Pradesh, of which Hyderabad is the capital.
  136. ↑ Nanda S (1991). "chpt. 7. Deviant careers: the hijras of India". In Freilich M, Raybeck D, Savishinsky JS (eds.). Deviance: Anthropological Perspectives. Bergin & Garvey. ISBN   978-0-89789-204-9. Archived from the original on 19 December 2021. Retrieved 19 December 2021. Among thirty of my informants, only one appeared to have been born intersexed.
  137. ↑ Lorber J (1994). Paradoxes of Gender . Yale University Press. pp. 94–95. ISBN   978-0-300-06497-1.
  138. ↑ Hunt S (2016). "An Introduction to the Health of Two-Spirit People: Historical, contemporary and emergent issues" (PDF). National Collaborative Centre Aboriginal Health. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2 February 2017.

Further reading

This page is based on this Wikipedia article
Text is available under the CC BY-SA 4.0 license; additional terms may apply.
Images, videos and audio are available under their respective licenses.