Man

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A Malayali man with medium skin tone, of medium build, and with facial hair Outdoors-man-portrait (cropped).jpg
A Malayali man with medium skin tone, of medium build, and with facial hair

A man is an adult male human. [a] [2] [3] Before adulthood, a male human is referred to as a boy (a male child or adolescent).

Contents

Like most other male mammals, a man's genome usually inherits an X chromosome from the mother and a Y chromosome from the father. Sex differentiation of the male fetus is governed by the SRY gene on the Y chromosome. During puberty, hormones which stimulate androgen production result in the development of secondary sexual characteristics that result in even more differences between the sexes. These include greater muscle mass, greater height, the growth of facial hair and a lower body fat composition. Male anatomy is distinguished from female anatomy by the male reproductive system, which includes the testicles, sperm ducts, prostate gland and epididymides, and penis. Secondary sex characteristics include a narrower pelvis and hips, and smaller breasts and nipples.

Throughout human history, traditional gender roles have often defined men's activities and opportunities. Men often face conscription into military service or are directed into professions with high mortality rates. Many religious doctrines stipulate certain rules for men, such as religious circumcision. Men are over-represented as both perpetrators and victims of violence.

Trans men have a gender identity that does not align with their female sex assignment at birth, while intersex men may have sex characteristics that do not fit typical notions of male biology.

Etymology

The English term "man" is derived from the Proto-Indo-European root *man- (see Sanskrit/Avestan manu-, Slavic mǫž "man, male"). [4] More directly, the word derives from Old English mann . The Old English form primarily meant "person" or "human being" and referred to men, women, and children alike. The Old English word for "man" as distinct from "wif"/"woman" or "child" was wer . Mann only came to mean "man" in Middle English, replacing wer, which survives today only in the compounds "werewolf" (from Old English werwulf , literally "man-wolf"), and "wergild", literally "man-payment". [5] [6] [7]

Biology

Karyogram of a human male using Giemsa staining. Human males typically possess an XY combination. NHGRI human male karyotype.png
Karyogram of a human male using Giemsa staining. Human males typically possess an XY combination.

In humans, sperm cells carry either an X or a Y sex chromosome. If a sperm cell carrying a Y chromosome fertilizes the female ovum, the offspring will have a male karyotype (XY). The SRY gene is typically found on the Y chromosome and causes the development of the testes, which in turn govern other aspects of male sex differentiation. Sex differentiation in males proceeds in a testes-dependent way while female differentiation is not gonad dependent. [8]

Primary sex characteristics (or sex organs) are characteristics that are present at birth and are integral to the reproductive process. For men, primary sex characteristics include the penis and testicles.

Adult humans exhibit sexual dimorphism in many other characteristics, many of which have no direct link to reproductive ability. Humans are sexually dimorphic in body size, body structure, and body composition. Men tend to be taller and heavier than women, and adjusted for height, men tend to have greater lean and bone mass than women, and lower fat mass. [9]

Photograph of an adult male human (right), with an adult female for comparison. The pubic hair of both models is removed. Anterior view of human female and male, with labels 2.png
Photograph of an adult male human (right), with an adult female for comparison. The pubic hair of both models is removed.

Secondary sex characteristics are features that appear during puberty in humans. [10] [11] Such features are especially evident in the sexually dimorphic phenotypic traits that distinguish between the sexes, but—unlike the primary sex characteristics—are not directly part of the reproductive system. [12] [13] [14] Secondary sexual characteristics that are specific to men include:

Men weigh more than women. [16] On average, men are taller than women by about 10%. [16] On average, men have a larger waist in comparison to their hips (see waist–hip ratio) than women. In women, the index and ring fingers tend to be either more similar in size or their index finger is slightly longer than their ring finger, whereas men's ring finger tends to be longer. [17]

Reproductive system

A lateral cutaway of the human male lower abdomen, showing the human male reproductive system anatomy Male pelvic structures.svg
A lateral cutaway of the human male lower abdomen, showing the human male reproductive system anatomy

The internal male genitalia consist of the testicles, gonads that produce male gametes called sperm, the prostate, seminal vesicles, and bulbourethral glands, accessory glands that partake in sperm health, the epididymides, organs that store sperm cells, and the vasa deferentia and ejaculatory ducts, tubular structures that transfer the mature sperm to the urethra.

The external male genitalia consist of the penis, an organ that expels semen, and the scrotum, a pouch of skin housing the testicles. [18]

The male reproductive system's function is to produce semen, which carries sperm and thus genetic information that can unite with an egg within a woman. Since sperm that enters a woman's uterus and then fallopian tubes goes on to fertilize an egg which develops into a fetus or child, the male reproductive system plays no necessary role during the gestation. The study of male reproduction and associated organs is called andrology. [19]

Testosterone stimulates the development of the Wolffian ducts, the penis, and closure of the labioscrotal folds into the scrotum. Another significant hormone in sexual differentiation is the anti-Müllerian hormone, which inhibits the development of the Müllerian ducts. For males during puberty, testosterone, along with gonadotropins released by the pituitary gland, stimulates spermatogenesis. [20]

Health

While a majority of the global health gender disparities is weighted against women, there are situations in which men tend to fare poorer. One such instance is armed conflicts, where men are often the immediate victims. A study of conflicts in 13 countries from 1955 to 2002 found that 81% of all violent war deaths were male. [21] Apart from armed conflicts, areas with high incidence of violence, such as regions controlled by drug cartels, also see men experiencing higher mortality rates. [22] This stems from social beliefs that associate ideals of masculinity with aggressive, confrontational behavior. [23] Lastly, sudden and drastic changes in economic environments and the loss of social safety nets, in particular social subsidies and food stamps, have also been linked to higher levels of alcohol consumption and psychological stress among men, leading to a spike in male mortality rates. This is because such situations often makes it harder for men to provide for their family, a task that has been long regarded as the "essence of masculinity." [24] A retrospective analyses of people infected with the common cold found that doctors underrate the symptoms of men, and are more willing to attribute symptoms and illness to women than men. [25] Women live longer than men in all countries, and across all age groups, for which reliable records exist. [26] In the United States, men are less healthy than women across all social classes. Non-white men are especially unhealthy. Men are over-represented in dangerous occupations and represent a majority of on the job deaths. Further, medical doctors provide men with less service, less advice, and spend less time with men than they do with women per medical encounter. [27]

Sexuality and gender

Most men are heterosexual and cisgender Bride and Groom on Their Wedding Day - Berehove - Ukraine (36533653131) (2).jpg
Most men are heterosexual and cisgender

Male sexuality and attraction varies between individuals, and a man's sexual behavior can be affected by many factors, including evolved predispositions, personality, upbringing, and culture. While most men are heterosexual, significant minorities are homosexual or bisexual. [28]

Most cultures use a gender binary in which man is one of the two genders, the other being woman. [29] [30] [31]

Most men are cisgender, and their gender identity aligns with their male sex assignment at birth. Trans men have a male gender identity that does not align with their female sex assignment at birth, and may undergo masculinizing hormone replacement therapy and/or sex reassignment surgery. [32] Intersex men may have sex characteristics that do not fit typical notions of male biology. [33] A 2016 systemic review estimated that 0.256% of people self-identify as female-to-male transgender. [34] A 2017 survey of 80,929 Minnesota students found that roughly twice as many female-assigned adolescents self-identified as transgender, compared to adolescents with a male sex assignment. [35]

Social role

Masculinity

Michelangelo's David is the classical image of youthful male beauty in Western art. 'David' by Michelangelo Fir JBU005 denoised.jpg
Michelangelo's David is the classical image of youthful male beauty in Western art.

Masculinity (also sometimes called manhood or manliness) is the set of personality traits and attributes associated with boys and men. Although masculinity is socially constructed, [36] some research indicates that some behaviors considered masculine are biologically influenced. [37] To what extent masculinity is biologically or socially influenced is subject to debate. [37] It is distinct from the definition of the biological male sex, as both males and females can exhibit masculine traits. [38] Men generally face social stigma for embodying feminine traits, more so than women do for embodying masculine traits. [39] This can also manifest as homophobia. [40]

Standards of manliness or masculinity vary across different cultures and historical periods. [41] While the outward signs of masculinity look different in different cultures, there are some common aspects to its definition across cultures. In all cultures in the past, and still among traditional and non-Western cultures, getting married is the most common and definitive distinction between boyhood and manhood. [42] In the late 20th century, some qualities traditionally associated with marriage (such as the "triple Ps" of protecting, providing, and procreating ) were still considered signs of having achieved manhood. [42] [43]

Relationships

Two men playing a board game Men playing oware in Ghana.jpg
Two men playing a board game

Platonic relationships are not significantly different between men and women, though some differences do exist. Friendships involving men tend to be based more on shared activities than self-disclosure and personal connection. Perceptions of friendship involving men varies among cultures and time periods. [44] In heterosexual romantic relationships, men are typically expected to take a proactive role, initiate the relationship, plan dates, and propose marriage. [45]

Status

Anthropology has shown that masculinity itself has social status, just like wealth, race and social class. In Western culture, for example, greater masculinity usually brings greater social status. [46] Many English words such as virtue and virile (from the Indo-European root vir meaning man) reflect this. [47] [48] In most cultures, male privilege allows men more rights and privileges than women. In societies where men are not given special legal privileges, they typically hold more positions of power, and men are seen as being taken more seriously in society. [46] This is associated with a "gender-role strain" in which men face increased societal pressure to conform to gender roles. [49]

History

The earliest known recorded name of a man in writing is potentially Kushim, who would have lived sometime between 3400 and 3000 BC in the Sumerian city of Uruk; though his name may have been a title rather than his actual name. [50] The earliest confirmed names are that of Gal-Sal and his two slaves named En-pap X and Sukkalgir, from c. 3100 BC. [51]

Family

A father and his son Father and son 27.jpg
A father and his son

Men may have children, whether biological or adopted; such men are called fathers. The role of men in the family has shifted considerably in the 20th and 21st centuries, taking on a more active role in raising children in most societies. [52] [53] [54] [55] Men would traditionally marry a woman when raising children, but in modern times many countries now allow for same-sex marriage, and for those couples to raise children either via adoption or surrogacy. Men may be single parents, and are increasingly so in modern times, though women are three times more likely to be single parents than men. [56] In paternal societies, men have typically have been regarded as the "head of household" and held additional social privileges. [57]

Work

Men have traditionally held jobs that were not available to women. Such jobs tended to be either more strenuous, more prestigious, or more dangerous. Modern men increasingly take untraditional career paths, such as staying home and raising children while their partner works. [58] Modern men tend to work longer than women, which impacts their ability to spend time with their families. [59] Even in modern times, some jobs remain available only to men, such as military service. [60] Conscription is overwhelmingly discriminatory, currently only ten countries include women in their conscription programs. [61] [62] Men continue to hold more dangerous jobs than women, even in developed countries. In the United States in 2020, ten times as many men died on the job as women, and a man was ten times more likely to die on the job than a woman. [63]

Entertainment and media

Media portrayals of men often replicate traditional understanding of masculinity. Men are portrayed more frequently in television than women and most commonly appear as leads in action and drama programming. Men are typically more active in television programming than women and typically hold more power and status. Due to their prominence, men are more likely to be both the objects and instigators of humorous or disparaging content. Fathers are often portrayed in television as either idealized and caring or clumsy and inept. In advertising, men are disproportionately featured in advertisements for alcohol, vehicles, and business products. [64]

Clothing

A man wearing a business suit stands next to a display of men's blue jeans at a clothing factory. Denim Jeans Pant Display.JPG
A man wearing a business suit stands next to a display of men's blue jeans at a clothing factory.

Men's clothing typically encompasses a range of garments designed for various occasions, seasons, and styles. Fundamental items of a man's wardrobe include shirts, trousers, suits, and jackets, which are designed to provide both comfort and style while prioritizing functionality. Men's fashion also encompasses more casual garments such as t-shirts, sweatshirts, jeans, shorts, and swimwear, which are typically intended for informal settings. Cultural and regional traditions often influence men's fashion, resulting in diverse styles and garments that reflect the unique characteristics of different parts of the world. [65]

Education

An all-male figure drawing class in 1908 at Edinburgh College of Art Life Class 1908 Edinburgh College of Art.jpg
An all-male figure drawing class in 1908 at Edinburgh College of Art

Men traditionally received more education than women as a result of single-sex education. Universal education, meaning state-provided primary and secondary education independent of gender, is not yet a global norm, even if it is assumed in most developed countries. [66] [67] In the 21st century, the balance has shifted in many developed nations, and men now lag behind women in education. [68]

Men are more likely than women to be faculty at universities. [69]

In 2020, 90% of the world's men were literate, compared to 87% of women. But sub-Saharan Africa, and southwest Asia lagged behind the rest of the world; only 72% of men in sub-Saharan Africa were literate. [70]

Rights

In most societies, men have more legal and cultural rights than women. [46] and misogyny is far more prevalent than misandry in society. [71] [72] While one in six male experiences sexual assault, [73] [74] [75] [76] [77] men typically receive less support after being victims of it, [78] and rape of males is stigmatized. [79] Domestic violence against men is similarly stigmatized, [80] although men make up half of the victims in heterosexual couples. [81] [82] [83] Opponents of circumcision describe it as a human rights violation. [84] The fathers' rights movement seeks to support separated fathers that do not receive equal rights to care for their children. [85] The men's movement is the response to issues faced by men in Western countries. It includes pro-feminist groups such as the men's liberation movement, [86] and anti-feminist groups such as the manosphere.

Gender symbol

The Mars symbol (♂) is a common symbol that represents the male sex. [87] The symbol is identical to the planetary symbol of Mars. [88] It was first used to denote sex by Carl Linnaeus in 1751. [89] The symbol is sometimes seen as a stylized representation of the shield and spear of the Roman god Mars. According to Stearn, however, this derivation is "fanciful" and all the historical evidence favours "the conclusion of the French classical scholar Claude de Saumaise" that it is derived from θρ, the contraction of a Greek epithet for Mars, θοῦρος (Thouros). [90]

See also

Notes

  1. ↑ Male may refer to sex or gender. [1] The plural men is sometimes used in certain phrases such as men's studies to denote male humans regardless of age.

Related Research Articles

Orgasm or sexual climax is the sudden release of accumulated sexual excitement during the sexual response cycle, characterized by intense sexual pleasure resulting in rhythmic, involuntary muscular contractions in the pelvic region. Orgasms are controlled by the involuntary or autonomic nervous system and experienced by both males and females; the body's response includes muscular spasms, a general euphoric sensation, and, frequently, body movements and vocalizations. The period after orgasm is typically a relaxing experience after the release of the neurohormones oxytocin and prolactin, as well as endorphins.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Sex</span> Trait that determines an organisms sexually reproductive function

Sex is the biological trait that determines whether a sexually reproducing organism produces male or female gametes. During sexual reproduction, a male and a female gamete fuse to form a zygote, which develops into an offspring that inherits traits from each parent. By convention, organisms that produce smaller, more mobile gametes are called male, while organisms that produce larger, non-mobile gametes are called female. An organism that produces both types of gamete is hermaphrodite.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Woman</span> Female adult human

A woman is an adult female human. Before adulthood, a female child or adolescent is referred to as a girl.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Gender</span> Characteristics distinguishing between different gender identities

Gender includes the social, psychological, cultural and behavioral aspects of being a man, woman, or other gender identity. Depending on the context, this may include sex-based social constructs as well as gender expression. Most cultures use a gender binary, in which gender is divided into two categories, and people are considered part of one or the other ; those who are outside these groups may fall under the umbrella term non-binary. A number of societies have specific genders besides "man" and "woman," such as the hijras of South Asia; these are often referred to as third genders. Most scholars agree that gender is a central characteristic for social organization.

A gender role, or sex role, is a set of socially accepted behaviors and attitudes deemed appropriate or desirable for individuals based on their gender or sex. Gender roles are usually centered on conceptions of masculinity and femininity.

Gender identity is the personal sense of one's own gender. Gender identity can correlate with a person's assigned sex or can differ from it. In most individuals, the various biological determinants of sex are congruent and consistent with the individual's gender identity. Gender expression typically reflects a person's gender identity, but this is not always the case. While a person may express behaviors, attitudes, and appearances consistent with a particular gender role, such expression may not necessarily reflect their gender identity. The term gender identity was coined by psychiatry professor Robert J. Stoller in 1964 and popularized by psychologist John Money.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Masculinity</span> Attributes associated with men

Masculinity is a set of attributes, behaviors, and roles associated with men and boys. Masculinity can be theoretically understood as socially constructed, and there is also evidence that some behaviors considered masculine are influenced by both cultural factors and biological factors. To what extent masculinity is biologically or socially influenced is subject to debate. It is distinct from the definition of the biological male sex, as anyone can exhibit masculine traits. Standards of masculinity vary across different cultures and historical periods. In Western cultures, its meaning is traditionally drawn from being contrasted with femininity.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Femininity</span> Attributes associated with women and girls

Femininity is a set of attributes, behaviors, and roles generally associated with women and girls. Femininity can be understood as socially constructed, and there is also some evidence that some behaviors considered feminine are influenced by both cultural factors and biological factors. To what extent femininity is biologically or socially influenced is subject to debate. It is conceptually distinct from both the female biological sex and from womanhood, as all humans can exhibit feminine and masculine traits, regardless of sex and gender.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Physical attractiveness</span> Aesthetic assessment of physical traits

Physical attractiveness is the degree to which a person's physical features are considered aesthetically pleasing or beautiful. The term often implies sexual attractiveness or desirability, but can also be distinct from either. There are many factors which influence one person's attraction to another, with physical aspects being one of them. Physical attraction itself includes universal perceptions common to all human cultures such as facial symmetry, sociocultural dependent attributes, and personal preferences unique to a particular individual.

Gender expression, or gender presentation, is a person's behavior, mannerisms, and appearance that are socially associated with gender, namely femininity or masculinity. Gender expression can also be defined as the external manifestation of one's gender identity through behavior, clothing, hairstyles, voice, or body characteristics. Typically, a person's gender expression is thought of in terms of masculinity and femininity, but an individual's gender expression may incorporate both feminine and masculine traits, or neither. A person's gender expression may or may not match their assigned sex at birth. This includes gender roles, and accordingly relies on cultural stereotypes about gender. It is distinct from gender identity.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Male</span> Sex of an organism which produces sperm

Male is the sex of an organism that produces the gamete known as sperm, which fuses with the larger female gamete, or ovum, in the process of fertilisation. A male organism cannot reproduce sexually without access to at least one ovum from a female, but some organisms can reproduce both sexually and asexually. Most male mammals, including male humans, have a Y chromosome, which codes for the production of larger amounts of testosterone to develop male reproductive organs.

Male privilege is the system of advantages or rights that are available to men on the basis of their sex. A man's access to these benefits may vary depending on how closely they match their society's ideal masculine norm.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Attraction to transgender people</span> Romantic or sexual attraction to transgender people

Sexual attraction to transgender people has been the subject of scientific study and social commentary. Psychologists have researched sexual attraction toward trans women, trans men, cross dressers, non-binary people, and a combination of these. Publications in the field of transgender studies have investigated the attraction transgender individuals can feel for each other. The people who feel this attraction to transgender people name their attraction in different ways.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Sex differences in human physiology</span>

Sex differences in human physiology are distinctions of physiological characteristics associated with either male or female humans. These differences are caused by the effects of the different sex chromosome complement in males and females, and differential exposure to gonadal sex hormones during development. Sexual dimorphism is a term for the phenotypic difference between males and females of the same species.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Androphilia and gynephilia</span> Sexual orientation to men or women

In behavioral science, androphilia and gynephilia are sexual orientations: Androphilia is sexual attraction to men and/or masculinity; gynephilia is sexual attraction to women and/or femininity. Ambiphilia describes the combination of both androphilia and gynephilia in a given individual, or bisexuality. The terms offer an alternative to a gender binary homosexual and heterosexual conceptualization of sexuality.

While in ordinary speech, the terms sex and gender are often used interchangeably, in contemporary academic literature, the terms often have distinct meanings, especially when referring to people. Sex generally refers to an organism's biological sex, while gender usually refers to either social roles typically associated with the sex of a person or personal identification of one's own gender based on their own personal sense of it. Most contemporary social scientists, behavioral scientists and biologists, many legal systems and government bodies and intergovernmental agencies such as the WHO make a distinction between gender and sex.

Machismo is the sense of being "manly" and self-reliant, a concept associated with "a strong sense of masculine pride: an exaggerated masculinity". Machismo is a term originating in the early 1940s and 1950s and its use more widespread in popular culture in the 60s. While the term is associated with "a man's responsibility to provide for, protect, and defend his family", machismo is strongly and consistently associated with dominance, aggression, grandstanding, and an inability to nurture. Machismo is found to be deeply rooted in family dynamics and culture in Latin America and is exclusive to the region.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Female</span> Sex of an organism that produces ova

An organism's sex is female if it produces the ovum, the type of gamete that fuses with the male gamete during sexual reproduction.

Androgyny is the possession of both masculine and feminine characteristics. Androgyny may be expressed with regard to biological sex or gender expression.

Gender roles in non-heterosexual communities are a topic of much debate; some people believe traditional, heterosexual gender roles are often erroneously enforced on non-heterosexual relationships by means of heteronormative culture and attitudes towards these non-conformative relationships.

References

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