Healthcare and the LGBTQ community

Last updated

Various issues in medicine relate to lesbian, gay, bisexual, transgender and queer (LGBTQ) people. According to the US Gay and Lesbian Medical Association (GLMA), besides HIV/AIDS, issues related to LGBTQ health include breast and cervical cancer, hepatitis, mental health, substance use disorders, alcohol use, tobacco use, depression, access to care for transgender persons, issues surrounding marriage and family recognition, conversion therapy, refusal clause legislation, and laws that are intended to "immunize health care professionals from liability for discriminating against persons of whom they disapprove." [1]

Contents

LGBTQ people may face barriers to accessing healthcare on the basis of their sexual orientation and/or gender identity or expression. [2] Many avoid or delay care or receive inappropriate or inferior care because of perceived or real homophobia or transphobia and discrimination by healthcare providers and institutions; [2] [3] in other words, negative personal experience, the assumption or expectation of negative experience based on knowledge of the history of such experience in other LGBTQ people, or both. [4]

Issues affecting LGBTQ people generally

According to the Committee on Lesbian, Gay, Bisexual and Transgender Health Issues and Research Gaps and Opportunities, convened by the Institute of Medicine (IOM) at the request of the NIH, there are several difficulties in conducting health research on LGBTQ populations. These challenges include the complexity of defining sexual orientation and gender nonconformity, hesitancy among individuals to answer questions about their same-sex behavior or gender identity, and the logistical and financial challenges of recruiting a sufficient sample size for meaningful analysis due to the relatively small size of the LGBTQIA population in the United States. [5]

Lesbians, gay men, bisexual individuals, and transgender people are often grouped together in research and discussions despite being distinct populations and non-inclusive of all non-heterosexual or gender non-conforming. [5] This is because of the common stigma they face as sexual and/or gender minorities known as minority stress. In some studies, lesbians, gay men, bisexual, and queer individuals are combined under the label "non-heterosexual," while in HIV research, participants may be grouped together in categories that include various identities. [5] Most research focuses on lesbians and gay men, with significantly less attention given to bisexual, transgender, queer, intersex and asexual individuals. and they often face stigma as a result. [5]

A review of studies in North America found that LGB individuals generally reported poorer self-rated health, more physical health symptoms, and higher rates of certain health conditions, including diabetes, asthma and high blood pressure, compared to heterosexuals. [6] These disparities were most pronounced among adolescents and young adults, with smaller differences among older age groups. Factors such as health behaviors and experiences of discrimination, victimization, and violence among sexual minorities were found to contribute to these disparities in physical health. [6] Mental health appears worse among LGBT people than among the general population, with depression, anxiety, self-harm, and suicide ideation being higher than the general population. [7] These mental health disparities are more evident in LGBTQ+ youth, with self-harm being reported by 65% of LGBQ youth and 46% of TGNC youth. [7] LGBT individuals have also been shown to have difficulty accessing competent fertility-related care or quality family planning services. [8] [9] There appear to be higher rates of eating disorder and self-harm, but similar levels of obesity and domestic violence to the general population; lack of exercise and smoking appear more significant and drug use higher, while alcohol consumption is similar to the general population. [10] The research indicates noticeable barriers between LGB patients and health professionals, and the reasons suggested are homophobia, assumptions of heterosexuality, lack of knowledge, misunderstanding and over-caution; institutional barriers were identified as well, due to assumed heterosexuality, inappropriate referrals, lack of patient confidentiality, discontinuity of care, absence of LGBT-specific healthcare, lack of relevant psycho-sexual training. [10] [11] About 30 percent of all completed suicides have been related to sexual identity crisis. Students who also fall into the gay, bisexual, lesbian or trans gendered identity groups report being five times as more likely to miss school because they feel unsafe after being bullied due to their sexual orientation. [12]

Research points to issues encountered from an early age, such as sexual and gender minorities being targeted for bullying, assault, and discrimination, as contributing significantly to depression, suicide and other mental health issues in adulthood. [13] [14] [15] Social research suggests that LGBT experience discriminatory practices in accessing healthcare. [16] [17] [18] One way that LGB individuals have attempted to deal with discriminatory health care is by seeking "queer-friendly" health care providers. [19]

Causes of LGBTQ health disparities

Research explains healthcare disparities in LGBTQ people is likely due to minority stress. [20] [21] [22] Minority refers to the weight of facing negative societal attitudes and reactions towards one's sexual and gender identity. It includes stressors resulting from social exclusion and stigma, leading to adverse mental health effects. The theory of minority stress explains how experiences of victimization related to gender and sexual non-conformity contribute to psychological and mental health issues among LGBT individuals. [20] [21] This stress is rooted in negative social interactions and, when prolonged, can significantly impact mental health, leading to behaviors like substance abuse, suicidal thoughts, poor communication, and unintentional actions. Research has shown various negative mental health outcomes linked to chronic experiences of minority stress. [20] The 'What We Know Project' reviewed thousands of peer-reviewed studies and found a strong link between discrimination and harm to the health of LGBT people. [23] The findings showed that the presence of discrimination, stigma, and prejudice creates a hostile social climate which increase the risk of poor mental and physical health, even for those not directly exposed to the discrimination.

A systematic review of healthcare access for LGBTQ individuals found that they often struggle to communicate with healthcare providers due to fear of assumptions and embarrassment about their sexual orientation. This, coupled with homophobia in healthcare, leads to exclusion and marginalization, reducing their attendance and engagement in body care and preventive health programs. [22]

During the past decade, the LGBTQ social movement in United States and worldwide contributed to the increasing trend of public recognition and acceptance toward the community. [24] [25] Reports from the Institute of Medicine, US National Institutes of Health and other nonprofit organizations have called to address the gap in LGBT training and education for healthcare professionals. [26] [27] Current research indicate that LGBT individuals face disparity compared to their heterosexual and cisgender counterparts regarding access to health facilities, qualities, and treatment outcomes. [28] [29] [30]

It is often pointed out that the reason for this is heterosexism in medical care and research. [4] [31]

"Heterosexism can be purposeful (decreased funding or support of research projects that focus on sexual orientation) or unconscious (demographic questions on intake forms that ask the respondent to rate herself or himself as married, divorced, or single). These forms of discrimination limit medical research and negatively impact the health care of LGB individuals. This disparity is particularly extreme for lesbians (compared to homosexual men) because they have a double minority status, and experience oppression for being both female and homosexual." [32]

LGBTQ health and social support networks

LGBTQ+ health outcomes are strongly influenced by social support networks, peers, and family. One example of a support network now available to some LGBTQ+ youth include Gay-Straight Alliances (GSAs), which are clubs that work to improve the climate for LGBTQ+ youth at schools and educate students and staff about issues faced by the LGBTQ+ community. In order to investigate the effects of GSAs on LGBT youth, 149 college-aged students that self-identified as LGBT completed a survey that assessed their high school's climate for LGBT youth, and their current health and alcohol dependency outcomes. Those participants who had a GSA at their high school (GSA+ youth) reported higher senses of belonging, less at-school victimization because of their sexual orientation, more favorable outcomes related to their alcohol use behaviors, and greater positive outcomes related to depression and general psychological distress when compared to those without a GSA (GSA- youth). Amongst other competing variables that contributed to these outcomes, the vast majority of schools that had a GSA were located in urban and suburban areas that tend to be safer and more accepting of LGBT people in general. [33]

Family and social support networks also relate with mental health trajectories amongst LGBT youth. Family rejection upon a youth "coming out" sometimes results in adverse health outcomes. In fact, LGBT youth who experienced family rejection were 8.4 times more likely to attempt suicide, 5.9 times more likely to experience elevated levels of depression, and 3.4 times more likely to use illegal drugs than those LGBT youth who were accepted by family members. [34] Family rejection sometimes leads youth to either run away from home or be kicked out of their home, which relates to the high rate of homelessness experienced by LGBT youth. In turn, homelessness relates to an array of adverse health outcomes that sometimes stem from homeless LGBT youths' elevated rates of involvement in prostitution and survival sex. [35]

One longitudinal study of 248 youth across 5.5 years found that LGBT youth that have strong family and peer support experience less distress across all-time points relative to those who have uniformly low family and peer support. Overtime, the psychological distress experienced by LGBT youth decreased, regardless of the amount of family and peer support that they received during adolescence. Nonetheless, the decrease in distress was greater for youth with low peer and family support than for those participants with high support. At age 17, those who lacked family support but had high peer support exhibited the highest levels of distress, but this distress level lowered to nearly the same level as those reporting high levels of support within a few years. Those LGBT youth without family support but with strong support from their peers reported an increase in family support over the years in spite of having reported the lowest family support at the age of 17. [36]

Similarly, another study of 232 LGBTQ youth between the ages of 16-20 found that those with low family and social support reported higher rates of hopelessness, loneliness, depression, anxiety, somatization, suicidality, global severity, and symptoms of major depressive disorder (MDD) than those who received strong family and non-family support. In contrast, those who solely received non-family support reported worse outcomes for all measured health outcomes except for anxiety and hopelessness, for which there was no difference. [37]

Some studies have found poorer mental health outcomes for bisexual people than gay men and lesbians, which has been attributed to some degree to this community's lack of acceptance and validation both within and outside of the LGBTQ community. One qualitative study interviewed 55 bisexual people in order to identify common reasons for higher rates of mental health problems. The testimonials that were collected and organized into macro level (social structure), meso level (interpersonal), and micro level (individual) factors. At the social structure level, bisexuals noted that they were constantly asked to explain and justify their sexual orientation, and experienced biphobia and monosexism from individuals both within and outside of the LGBT community. Many also stated that their identity was repetitively degraded by others, and that they are assumed to be promiscuous and hypersexual. During dates with others that did not identify as bisexual, some sighted being attacked and rejected solely based their sexual orientation. One female bisexual participant stated that upon going on a date with a lesbian female, "...she was very anti-bisexual. She said, 'You're sitting on the fence. Make a choice, either you're gay or straight'" (p. 498). Family members similarly questioned and criticized their identity. One participant recalled that his sister stated that she would prefer if her sibling were gay instead of "...this slutty person who just sleeps with everyone" (p. 498). At the personal level, many bisexual struggle to accept themselves due to society's negative social attitudes and beliefs about bisexuality. In order to address issues of self acceptance, participants recommended embracing spirituality, exercise, the arts, and other activities that promote emotional health. [38]

Assisted Reproductive Technologies

LGBTQ+ individuals face unique problems in having biological children not experienced by cisgender heterosexual men and women. Traditionally parenthood was often seen as impossible for same sex couples and LGBT adoption was encouraged instead, but in recent decades, developmental biologists have been researching and developing techniques to facilitate same-sex reproduction, which could allow for same sex couples to both be biological parents together. [39] [40]

Issues affecting lesbians

Breast cancer

In a 2013 systematic review done in the UK and USA, which looked at nine studies found that overall there was no significant difference in the incidence rates of breast cancer in lesbian and bisexual women compared to heterosexual women. [41]

There are also policy documents from both the UK and US Government that stated there could be higher rates of breast cancer among lesbian and bisexual women despite insufficient evidence. In a 2009 report by the UK All Party Parliamentary Group on Cancer's Inquiry into Inequalities in Cancer, it was stated that "Lesbians may have a higher risk of breast cancer. [42]

Depression and anxiety

Depression and anxiety are thought to affect lesbians at a higher rate than in the general population, for similar reasons. [43]

Domestic violence

Domestic violence is reported to occur in about 11 percent of lesbian homes. While this rate is about half the rate of 20 percent reported by heterosexual women, lesbians often have fewer resources available for shelter and counselling. [43]

Obesity and fitness

Lesbian and bisexual women are more likely to be overweight or obese. [44] Research shows that on average lesbians have a higher body mass index than heterosexual women. [43]

Substance use disorder

Lesbians often have high rates of substance use, including recreational drugs, alcohol and tobacco. Studies have shown that lesbian and bisexual women are 200% more likely to smoke tobacco than other women. [3]

Reproductive and sexual health

Lesbian, bisexual, and queer women have many of the same reproductive and sexual health needs as heterosexual women. However, queer women face disparities when it comes to reproductive and sexual health. This may be in part due to lower socioeconomic status and lower rates of insurance, particularly for bisexual individuals. Additionally, sex education (in the U.S.) is largely heteronormative and may not provide information relevant for LGBTQ individuals (see LGBT sex education). Health care providers may not have adequate education regarding sexual orientation, so may not be offering their queer patients appropriate and needed services. In one survey of Ob/Gyn residents, 50% reported feeling unprepared to care for lesbian or bisexual patients and 92% reported a desire for more education on how to provide healthcare to LGBTQ patients. [45] Queer individuals may also face discrimination and bias in the health care setting (and in society more broadly), leading to lower quality health care or deterring individuals from seeking care at all. Given these factors, queer women have specific needs around reproductive and sexual health.[ citation needed ]

Cervical cancer

A lack of screening for cervical cancer is among the most obvious and most preventable risk factor for lesbians, bisexual, and queer women in the development of invasive late-stage cervical cancer. [46] Lesbian, bisexual, and queer women are less likely to receive appropriate screening for cervical cancer than heterosexual women, [47] which leads to later detection of cervical cancer.

Contraception

Lesbian, bisexual, and queer women need access to contraception, both to prevent pregnancy and for a variety of non-contraceptive benefits. [48] Estimates suggest that 3.8 million cisgender lesbian, bisexual and queer women may be using contraceptives in the United States. [49] However, lesbian, bisexual, and queer women are less likely to use contraceptive methods, even when they are engaging in sex that could result in pregnancy. [50] [51]

Abortion

Lesbian, bisexual, queer, and women who identify with a sexual minority identity seek abortion care. The Guttmacher Institute estimates that approximately 5% of abortion patients in the United States identify as lesbian, bisexual, or queer. [52] Studies relying on measures of self-reported abortions suggest that abortion is common across queer women's lives. Bisexual adolescents are more likely to terminate a pregnancy than their heterosexual counterparts, a difference that persists into adulthood. [53] [54] Across their lifetimes, women who identify with a sexual minority identity were more likely than heterosexual women to experience an unwanted pregnancy or terminate a pregnancy. [55]

Pregnancy healthcare for lesbian women

There have been several studies that discuss healthcare experiences of pregnant lesbian women. Larsson and Dykes conducted a study in 2009 about lesbian mothers in Sweden. The participants wanted their healthcare providers to confirm and recognize both parents, not just the biological mother. They also wanted their healthcare providers to ask questions about their "life styles" to demonstrate their openness about sexuality. Most of the women in the study commented that they had good experiences with healthcare. However, birth education tended to focus on mother and father dynamics. The forms that were also used tended to be heterosexist (see Heterosexism), only allowing for mother and father identities. [56] To account for these differences, Singer created a document about how to improve the prenatal care of lesbian women in the United States. She found that curiosity about a patient's sexuality can take over an appointment, sometimes placing the patient into a situation where they end up educating the provider. To be inclusive, Singer recommended that healthcare providers should be more inclusive in their opening discussions by saying "So tell me the story of how you became pregnant". Healthcare providers should, according to Singer, use inclusive language that can be used for all types of patients. Healthcare providers were also not aware of how much reproductive health care cost for lesbian couples and they should openly recognize this issue with their lesbian patients. [57] Pharris, Bucchio, Dotson, and Davidson also provided suggestions on how to support lesbian couples during pregnancy. Childbirth educators should avoid assuming that parents are heterosexual or straight couples. They recommend using neutral language when discussing parent preferences. Forms, applications, and other distributed information should be inclusive of lesbian parents. They suggest using terms such as "non-biological mother, co-parent, social mother, other mother and second female parent" are good examples. Asking parents was also a suggested way to figure out what term should be used. Parents may also need help navigating legal systems in the area. [58]

Midwife(wives) and Doula(s) have provided care for lesbian women and couples who are pregnant. In an article in Rewire News, there was a discussion of how midwives and doulas are attempting to improve the overall care of lesbian couples by having specific training based on providing care to these couples as well as having inclusive processes. [59] In a study of lesbian and bisexual women in Canada about using healthcare services, researchers Ross, Steele, and Epstein found that the women in the study loved working with doulas and midwives. Midwives were considered helpful advocates with other healthcare providers that they encountered. [60] Midwives also discuss their perspectives. Röndahl, Bruhner, and Lindhe conducted a study in 2009 about lesbian pregnancy experiences of women in Norway. They found that midwives were the ones who were responsible for creating a space to discuss sexuality. However, midwives in the study felt that they were inadequate about having the communication tools to create this space. Additionally, the researchers found that lesbian couples were seen as different compared to straight couples. The partners have a sense of both love and friendship. Their differences were also seen when trying to find the roles for the lesbian co-mothers (non-biological mothers), as the language and questions asked did not fit their roles. Finally, the researchers found that there needed to be a balance of asking questions and being overly assertive. Midwives could ask questions about the patients' sexuality, but asking too many questions caused discomfort in the patients. [61]

Issues affecting gay men

Depression, anxiety, and suicide

Gay men are more likely to internalize their mental health issues than others in the LGBT community. [62] Studies by Cochran et al. (2003) and Mills et al. (2004), among others, suggest that depression and anxiety appear to affect gay men at a higher rate than in the general population. [63] [64]

According to GLMA, "the problem may be more severe for those men who remain in the closet or who do not have adequate social supports. Adolescents and young adults may be at particularly high risk of suicide because of these concerns. Culturally sensitive mental health services targeted specifically at gay men may be more effective in the prevention, early detection, and treatment of these conditions." [63] Researchers at the University of California at San Francisco found that major risk factors for depression in gay and bisexual men included a recent experience of anti-gay violence or threats, not identifying as gay, or feeling alienated from the gay community. [64]

Results from a survey by Stonewall Scotland published in early 2012 found that 3% of gay men had attempted suicide within the past year. [65] Despite progress in LGBT rights globally, gay men continue to experience high rates of loneliness and depression after coming out. [66] Suicide rates among men in same-sex relationships fell significantly in Sweden and Denmark after the legalization of same-sex marriage. Researcher Annette Erlangsen suggested that along with other gay rights legislation, same-sex marriage may have reduced feelings of social stigmatization among some homosexual people and that "being married is protective against suicide". [67]

HIV/AIDS

Men who have sex with men are more likely to acquire HIV in the modern West, Japan, [68] India, [69] and Taiwan, [70] [71] as well as other developed countries than among the general population, [72] in the United States, 60 times more likely than the general population. [73] An estimated 62% of adult and adolescent American males living with HIV/AIDS got it through sexual contact with other men. [74] HIV-related stigma is consistently and significantly associated with poorer physical and mental health in PLHIV (people living with HIV). [75] The first name proposed for what is now known as AIDS was gay-related immune deficiency , or GRID. [76] This name was proposed in 1982, after public health scientists noticed clusters of Kaposi's sarcoma and Pneumocystis pneumonia among gay males in California and New York City. [77] There is an unspoken fear of getting HIV tested in gay men. This can be because of fear of sexual rejection, not knowing where of how to get tested, and fear of friends/family distancing. [78]

Pre-exposure prophylaxis, or "PrEP", are medications to prevent HIV infection in individuals at higher risk, such as sexually active adults or people who inject drugs. [79] PrEP has been shown to be highly effective, reducing the risk of HIV transmission through sexual intercourse by up to 99% and through injection drug use by 74% when used as directed. [80] The World Health Organization recommends different forms of PrEP, including oral PrEP for those at substantial risk, event-driven PrEP for men who have sex with men, and the dapivirine vaginal ring for women at substantial risk who do not have access to oral PrEP. [79]

Other sexually transmitted infections

The US Center for Disease Control recommends annual screening for syphilis, gonorrhea, HIV and chlamydia for men who have sex with men. [3]

Black gay men have a greater risk of HIV and other STIs than white gay men. [81] However, their reported rates of unprotected anal intercourse are similar to those of men who have sex with men (MSM) of other ethnicities. [82]

Men who have sex with men are at an increased risk for hepatitis, and immunization for Hepatitis A and Hepatitis B is recommended for all men who have sex with men. Safer sex is currently the only means of prevention for the Hepatitis C. [63]

Human papilloma virus, which causes anal and genital warts, plays a role in the increased rates of anal cancers in gay men, and some health professionals now recommend routine screening with anal pap smears to detect early cancers. [63] Men have higher prevalence of oral HPV than women. Oral HPV infection is associated with HPV-positive oropharyngeal cancer.[ citation needed ]

Eating disorders and body image

Gay men are more likely than straight men to develop eating disorders such as bulimia or anorexia nervosa. [83] The cause of this correlation remains poorly understood, but is hypothesized to be related to the ideals of body image prevalent in the LGBT community. [84] Obesity, on the other hand, affects relatively fewer gay and bisexual men than straight men [85]

Substance use

David McDowell of Columbia University, who has studied substance use in gay men, wrote that club drugs are particularly popular at gay bars and circuit parties. [86] Studies have found different results on the frequency of tobacco use among gay and bisexual men compared to that of heterosexual men, with one study finding a 50% higher rate among sexual minority men, [3] and another encountering no differences across sexual orientations. [87]

Issues affecting bisexual people

Typically, bisexual individuals and their health and well-being are not studied independently of lesbian and gay individuals. Thus, there is limited research on the health issues that affect bisexual individuals. However, the research that has been done has found striking disparities between bisexuals and heterosexuals, and even between bisexuals and homosexuals.[ citation needed ]

It is important to consider that the majority of bisexual individuals are well-adjusted and healthy, despite having higher instances of health issues than the heterosexual population. [88]

Body image and eating disorders

Youth who reported having sex with both males and females are at the greatest risk for disordered eating, unhealthy weight control practices compared to youth who only have same- or other-gender sex. [89] Bisexual women are twice as likely as lesbians to have an eating disorder and, if they are out, to be twice as likely as heterosexual women to have an eating disorder. [90]

Mental health and suicide

Bisexual females are higher on suicidal intent, mental health difficulties and mental health treatment than bisexual males. [91] In a survey by Stonewall Scotland, 7% of bisexual men had attempted suicide in the past year. [65] Bisexual women are twice as likely as heterosexual women to report suicidal ideation if they have disclosed their sexual orientation to a majority of individuals in their lives; those who are not disclosed are three times more likely. [90] Bisexual individuals have a higher prevalence of suicidal ideation and attempts than heterosexual individuals, and more self-injurious behavior than gay men and lesbians. [92] A 2011 survey found that 44 per cent of bisexual middle and high school students had thought about suicide in the past month. [93]

Substance use

Female adolescents who report relationships with same- and other-sex partners have higher rates of hazardous alcohol use and substance use disorders. [94] This includes higher rates of marijuana and other illicit drug use. [95] [96] [97] Behaviorally and self-identified bisexual women are significantly more likely to smoke cigarettes and have been drug users as adolescents than heterosexual women. [98]

Cancer

Bisexual women are more likely to be nulliparous, overweight and obese, have higher smoking rates and alcohol drinking than heterosexual women, all risk factors for breast cancer. [99] Bisexual men practicing receptive anal intercourse are at higher risk for anal cancer caused by the human papillomavirus (HPV). [100]

HIV/AIDS and sexual health

Most research on HIV/AIDS focuses on gay and bisexual men than lesbians and bisexual women. Evidence for risky sexual behavior in bisexually behaving men has been conflicted. Bisexually active men have been shown to be just as likely as gay or heterosexual men to use condoms. [101] Men who have sex with men and women are less likely than homosexually behaving men to be HIV-positive or engage in unprotected receptive anal sex, but more likely than heterosexually behaving men to be HIV-positive. [102] Although there are no confirmed cases of HIV transmitted from female to female, women who have sex with both men and women have higher rates of HIV than homosexual or heterosexual women. [103]

In a 2011 nationwide study in the United States, 46.1% of bisexual women reported having experienced rape, compared to 13.1% of lesbians and 17.4% of heterosexual women, [104] a risk factor for HIV.

Issues affecting transgender people

Access to health care

Transgender individuals are often reluctant to seek medical care or are denied access by providers due to transphobia or a lack of knowledge or experience with transgender health. Additionally, in some jurisdictions, health care related to transgender issues, especially sex reassignment therapy, is not covered by medical insurance. [105]

The World Professional Association for Transgender Health (WPATH) Standards of Care provide a set of non-binding clinical guidelines for health practitioners who are treating transgender patients. [106] The Yogyakarta Principles, a global human rights proposal, affirms in Principle 17 that "States shall (g) facilitate access by those seeking body modifications related to gender reassignment to competent, non-discriminatory treatment, care and support. [107]

In the UK, the NHS is legally required to provide treatment for gender dysphoria. [108] As of 2018, Wales refers patients to the Gender Identity Clinic (GIC) in London, but the Welsh government plans to open a gender identity clinic in Cardiff. [109]

In India, a 2004 report claimed that hijras 'face discrimination in various ways' in the Indian health-care system, and sexual reassignment surgery is unavailable in government hospitals in India. [110]

In Bangladesh, health facilities sensitive to hijra culture are virtually non-existent, according to a report on hijra social exclusion. [111]

Denial of health care in the United States

The 2008-2009 National Transgender Discrimination Survey, published by National Gay and Lesbian Task Force and the National Center for Transgender Equality in partnership with the National Black Justice Coalition, [112] shed light on the discrimination transgender and gender non-conforming people face in many aspects of daily life, including in medical and health care settings. The survey reported that 19% of respondents had been refused healthcare by a doctor or other provider because they identify as transgender or gender non-conforming and transgender people of color were more likely to have been refused healthcare. [113] 36% of American Indian and 27% of multi-racial respondents reported being refused healthcare, compared to 17% of white respondents. In addition, the survey found that 28% of respondents said they had been verbally harassed in a healthcare setting and 2% of respondents reported being physically attacked in a doctor's office. Transgender people particularly vulnerable to being assaulted in a doctor's office were those who identify as African-Americans (6%), those who engaged in sex work, drug sales or other underground work (6%), those who transitioned before they were 18 (5%), and those who identified as undocumented or non-citizens (4%).[ citation needed ]

An updated version of the NTDS survey, called the 2015 U.S. Transgender Survey, was published in December 2016. [114]

Section 1557 of the Affordable Care Act contains nondiscrimination provisions to protect transgender people. In December 2016, however, a federal judge issued an injunction to block the enforcement of "the portion of the Final Rule that interprets discrimination on the basis of 'gender identity' and 'termination of pregnancy'". [115] Under the Trump administration, Roger Severino was appointed as civil rights director for the U.S. Department of Health and Human Services (HHS). Severino opposes Section 1557 [116] and HHS has said it "will not investigate complaints about anti-transgender discrimination," as explained by the National Center for Transgender Equality. [117] When a journalist asked Severino if, under the HHS Conscience and Religious Freedom division whose creation was announced in January 2018, transgender people could be "denied health care," he said "I think denial is a very strong word" and that healthcare "providers who simply want to serve the people they serve according to their religious beliefs" should be able to do so without fear of losing federal funding. [118] On May 24, 2019, Severino announced a proposal to reverse this portion of Section 1557, [119] [120] and, as of April 23, 2020, the Justice Department was reportedly reviewing the Trump administration's "final rule" which HHS acknowledged would reverse Section 1557's gender identity protections. [121]

On April 2, 2019, Texas Senate Bill 17 passed by a vote of 19–12. It would allow state-licensed professionals such as doctors, pharmacists, lawyers, and plumbers to deny services to anyone if the professional cites a religious objection. To reveal the motivations behind the bill, opponents proposed an amendment to prohibit discrimination based on sexual orientation or gender identity; the amendment failed 12–19. [122] [123]

On October 15, 2019, federal judge Reed O'Connor vacated the part of the Affordable Care Act that protects transgender people. The ruling means that federally-funded healthcare insurers and providers may deny treatment or coverage based on sex, gender identity or termination of pregnancy, and that doctors are not required to provide any services whatsoever to transgender people—even if they're the same services provided to non-transgender people, and even if they're medically necessary. [124]

Hormone treatment for transgender youth is illegal in Tennessee. On May 18, 2021, Governor Bill Lee signed a healthcare bill specifically prohibiting healthcare providers from prescribing hormone treatment for gender dysphoria in prepubertal minors, specifically allowing other hormone treatments to be prescribed for conditions such as growth deficiencies. [125] [126]

Transgender youth healthcare

Legislators in 25 US states have introduced bills to restrict access to gender-affirming medical care for minors in the past two years. As of August 2022, these bills have become law in Alabama, Arkansas, Arizona, and Tennessee. Relevant professional organizations including The American Medical Association, The American Academy of Pediatrics, The American Psychiatric Association, and The American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry have explicitly voiced opposition to these laws. [127] Most of these laws include sections that would penalize any healthcare providers that would acknowledge gender affirming care for transgender youth. [127]

Insurance coverage

Although they are not the only uninsured population in the United States, transgender people are less likely than cisgender people to have access to health insurance and if they do, their insurance plan may not cover medically necessary services. [128] The National Transgender Discrimination Survey reported that 19% of survey respondents stated that they had no health insurance compared to 15% of the general population. They were also less likely to be insured by an employer. Undocumented non-citizens had particularly high rates of non-coverage (36%) as well as African-Americans (31%), compared to white respondents (17%).[ citation needed ]

While a majority of U.S. insurance policies expressly exclude coverage for transgender care, regulations are shifting to expand coverage of transgender and gender non-conforming health care. [128] A number of private insurance carriers cover transgender-related health care under the rubric of "transgender services", "medical and surgical treatment of gender identity disorder", and "gender reassignment surgery". [129] Nine states (California, Colorado, Connecticut, Illinois, Massachusetts, New York, Oregon, Vermont, and Washington) and the District of Columbia require that most private insurance plans cover medically necessary health care for transgender patients. [130]

Depending on where they live, some transgender people are able to access gender-specific health care through public health insurance programs. Medicaid does not have a federal policy on transgender health care and leaves the regulation of the coverage of gender-confirming health care up to each state. [131] While Medicaid does not fund sex reassignment surgery in forty states, [132] several, like New York [133] and Oregon, [134] now require Medicaid to cover (most) transgender care.

Cancer

Cancers related to hormone use include breast cancer and liver cancer. In addition, trans men who have not had removal of the uterus, ovaries, or breasts remain at risk to develop cancer of these organs, while trans women remain at risk for prostate cancer. [105] The likelihood of prostate cancer in transgender women taking anti-androgens is significantly lower than in cisgender men. [135]

Mental health

According to transgender advocate Rebecca Allison, trans people are "particularly prone" to depression and anxiety: "In addition to loss of family and friends, they face job stress and the risk of unemployment. Trans people who have not transitioned and remain in their birth gender are very prone to depression and anxiety. Suicide is a risk, both prior to transition and afterward. One of the most important aspects of the transgender therapy relationship is management of depression and/or anxiety." [105] Depression is significantly correlated with experienced discrimination. [136] In a study of San Francisco trans women, 62% reported depression. [137] In a 2003 study of 1093 trans men and trans women, there was a prevalence of 44.1% for clinical depression and 33.2% for anxiety. [138]

Suicide attempts are common in transgender people. In some transgender populations the majority have attempted suicide at least once. 41% of the respondents of the National Transgender Discrimination Survey reported having attempted suicide. This statistic was even higher for certain demographics – for example, 56% of American Indian and Alaskan Native transgender respondents had attempted suicide. In contrast, 1.6% of the American population has attempted suicide. [139] In the sample all minority ethnic groups (Asian, Latino, black, American Indian and mixed race) had higher prevalence of suicide attempts than white people. Number of suicide attempts was also correlated with life challenges - 64% of those surveyed who had been sexually assaulted had attempted suicide. 76% who had been assaulted by teachers or other school staff had made an attempt.

In 2012 the Scottish Transgender Alliance conducted the Trans Mental Health Study. 74% of the respondents who had transitioned reported improved mental health after transitioning. 53% had self-harmed at some point, and 11% currently self-harmed. 55% had been diagnosed with or had a current diagnosis of depression. An additional 33% believed that they currently had depression, or had done in the past, but had not been diagnosed. 5% had a current or past eating disorder diagnosis. 19% believed that they had had an eating disorder or currently had one, but had not been diagnosed. 84% of the sample had experienced suicide ideation and 48% had made a suicide attempt. 3% had attempted suicide more than 10 times. 63% of respondents who transitioned thought about and attempted suicide less after transitioning. Other studies have found similar results. [139]

Trans women appear to be at greater risk than trans men and the general population of dying of suicide. [140] However, trans men are more likely to attempt suicide than trans women. [141]

Personality disorders are common in transgender people. [142]

Gender identity disorder is currently classed as a psychiatric condition by the DSM IV-TR. [143] The upcoming DSM-5 removes GID and replaces it with 'gender dysphoria', which is not classified by some authorities as a mental illness. [144] Until the 1970s, psychotherapy was the primary treatment for GID. However, today the treatment protocol involves biomedical interventions, with psychotherapy on its own being unusual.

There has been controversy about the inclusion of transsexuality in the DSM, one claim being that Gender Identity Disorder of Childhood was introduced to the DSM-III in 1980 as a 'backdoor-maneuver' to replace homosexuality, which was removed from the DSM-II in 1973. [145]

Hormones

Transgender individuals frequently take hormones to achieve feminizing or masculinizing effects. Side effects of hormone use include increased risk of blood clotting, high or low blood pressure, elevated blood sugar, water retention, dehydration, electrolyte disturbances, liver damage, increased risk for heart attack and stroke. [105] Use of unprescribed hormones is common, but little is known about the associated risks. [140] One potential hazard is HIV transmission from needle sharing. [146] Transgender men seeking to get pregnant were once told that they needed to stop hormone therapy or testosterone treatment as it could be difficult to become pregnant or could cause potential birth defects, however it now seems that this may not be necessary. [147] More research needs to be conducted in this field in order to make a definitive conclusion.

Injectable silicone

Some trans women use injectable silicone, sometimes administered by lay persons, to achieve their desired physique. This is most frequently injected into the hip and buttocks. It is associated with considerable medical complications, including morbidity. [142] Such silicone may migrate, causing disfigurement years later. Non-medical grade silicone may contain contaminants, and may be injected using a shared needle. [105] In New York City silicone injection occurs frequently enough to be called 'epidemic', with a NYC survey of trans women finding that 18% were receiving silicone injections from 'black market' providers. [142]

Sexually transmitted infections

Trans people (especially trans women – trans men have actually been found to have a lower rate of HIV than the general US population [113] ) are frequently forced into sex work to make a living, and are subsequently at increased risk for STIs including HIV. According to the National Transgender Discrimination Survey, 2.64% of American transgender people are HIV positive, and transgender sex workers are over 37 times more likely than members of the general American population to be HIV positive. HIV is also more common in trans people of color. For example, in a study by the National Institute of Health more than 56% of African-American trans women were HIV-positive compared to 27% of trans women in general. [148] This has been connected to how trans people of color are more likely to be sex workers. [139]

A 2012 meta analysis of studies assessing rates of HIV infection among transgender women in 15 countries found that trans women are 49 times more likely to have HIV than the general population. [149] HIV positive trans persons are likely to be unaware of their status. In one study, 73% of HIV-positive trans women were unaware of their status. [150]

Latin American trans women have a HIV prevalence of 18%-38% as of 2016, [151] but most Latin American countries do not recognize transgender people as a population. Therefore, there are no laws catering to their health needs.[ citation needed ]

Transgender people have higher levels of interaction with the police than the general population. 7% of transgender Americans have been held in prison cell simply due to their gender identity/expression. This rate is 41% for transgender African-Americans. [113] 16% of respondents had been sexually assaulted in prison, a risk factor for HIV. 20% of trans women are sexually assaulted in prison, compared to 6% of trans men. Trans women of color are more likely to be assaulted whilst in prison. 38% of black trans women report having been sexually assaulted in prison compared to 12% of white trans women.

In a San Francisco study, 68% of trans women and 55% of trans men reported having been raped, a risk factor for HIV. [152]

Substance use

Trans people are more likely than the general population to use substances. For example, studies have shown that trans men are 50% more likely, and trans women 200% more likely to smoke cigarettes than other populations. It has been suggested that tobacco use is high among transgender people because many use it to maintain weight loss. [153] In one study of transgender people, the majority had a history of non-injection drug use with the rates being 90% for marijuana, 66% for cocaine, 24% for heroin, and 48% for crack. [154] It has been suggested that transgender people who are more accepted by their families are less likely to develop substance use issues. [155]

In the Trans Mental Health Study 2012, 24% of participants had used drugs within the past year. The most commonly used drug was cannabis. 19% currently smoked. [139] A study published in 2013 found that among a sample of transgender adults, 26.5% had engaged in non-medical use of prescription drugs, most commonly analgesics. [156]

Gynecologic and reproductive care

Transgender and nonbinary people often encounter additional unique barriers in attaining gynecologic and reproductive care. Providers and staff often make assumptions about gender identity or expression of patients in a "women's health" clinic and many providers lack cultural competence in caring for transgender and nonbinary patients. Furthermore, many providers are not adequately trained in order to help the LGBTQ+ community. There are still many gaps in knowledge when it comes to issues such as hormone therapy and how it may impact pregnancy or fertility. Challenges in accessing insurance coverage is another common barrier to Ob/Gyn healthcare for transgender and nonbinary patients. [157]

Issues affecting Intersex people

Intersex is a term used to describe a diverse range of natural variations in sex characteristics and development that do not fit within the typical definitions of male or female. These variations can include at least 40 recognized differences in sex characteristics, some common variations are Klinefelter Syndrome, Congenital Adrenal Hyperplasia, Swyer Syndrome, and CAIS. [158] The medical language surrounding intersex health is complex. According to the National LGBT Health Education Center's guide for Affirming Primary Care for Intersex People in 2020, differences of sex development (DSD) or diverse sex development, is the current medical terminology to describe these variations. [158] While certain intersex variations are identifiable either prenatally or at birth, others may not become apparent until puberty or even later in life. [158]

While most intersex individuals identify as heterosexual and cisgender, they are incorporated into the LGBT community because of their shared experiences of discrimination based on misconceptions about gender and biology. [159] Additionally, there is a lack of medical and behavioral health research for intersex people often leading to gaps in understanding of their specific needs and experiences. [160] [158]

The medical needs and issues of intersex individuals vary greatly due to the diversity of intersex variations. Some may not require specialized medical attention, while others may need care at specific developmental stages and some have lifelong needs related to their unique variations. [158] Primary care providers play a crucial role in assisting individuals and families in finding trusted referrals and navigating specialized care. [158] Some common medical specialty care needs include steroid replacement for those with combined adrenal gland/gonadal variations, gynecologic, urologic, and sexual health care to address complications from prior surgeries, hormone therapy for inducing secondary sex characteristics, affirming gender identity, or replacing sex hormones after gonad removal, prevention and treatment of osteoporosis, and cancer surveillance for internal gonads. [158] Some individuals or families may choose to surgically remove internal gonads or gonadal streaks if there is an elevated cancer risk, although this risk may not always be present, and updated recommendations should be followed. [158]

Reconstructive surgery

Since the 1950s, the medical approach to intersex infants and children focused on surgically altering their genitalia to conform to typical male or female appearances and prevent non-heterosexual relationships. [160] This practice persists in some institutions, often pressuring families to consent to surgeries that may be unnecessary without adequate counseling or information about alternatives. [160] Intersex individuals often suffer adverse effects from these surgeries, including physical complications (scarring, chronic pain, loss of sensation, urinary and sexual dysfunction) and psychological distress (PTSD, depression, feelings of loneliness and fear or intimacy). [161] [162] Despite Intersex-led organizations and professional societies, including statements by the American Medical Student Association, WHO and American Academy of Family Physicians, some specialists continue to perform these surgeries, highlighting the ongoing need for advocacy and awareness. [163] [164] [165]

Issues affecting asexual people

Allonormativity, which stems from the idea of allosexuality (non-asexuality), assumes that experiencing sexual attraction and desiring sexual activity are normal human traits. This perspective may pathologize and stigmatize asexuality, where individuals lack sexual attraction or desire. [166] Compulsory sexuality reinforces the idea that any form of allosexuality (such as bisexuality or heterosexuality) is superior to being asexual. These societal norms can make it challenging for people to accept and embrace asexual identities, including their own, leading some asexual individuals to adopt different labels, such as bisexuality or pansexuality, due to a lack of awareness and acceptance of asexuality. [166] While many studies have focused on cisgender women, research indicates that the process of recognizing and internalizing an asexual identity is similar for cisgender men, despite some gender-related differences in experiences. [166]

In 2018, the UK government released findings from a nationwide survey on LGBT+ life in the country. One notable but often overlooked finding was that asexual individuals had poorer outcomes compared to those identifying as other sexual orientations. Asexual respondents reported lower life satisfaction scores and were less likely to feel comfortable living in the UK. They were also the most likely to hide their sexuality due to fear of a negative response. [167]

Differentiation from sexual dysfunction

Recent studies are investigating biological aspects of asexuality and comparing asexual individuals with non-asexual (allosexual) groups to distinguish asexuality from sexual dysfunction and psychological disorders. Eye-tracking and penile plethysmography were used to measure responses to sexual stimuli in cisgender men. [166] Heterosexual men focused more on erotic images, while asexual men distributed their attention more evenly. Asexual men also showed lower genital and subjective arousal to erotic films compared to allosexual men, but both groups had similar arousal during sexual fantasy, suggesting asexuality is not linked to physiological dysfunction. [166]

Another study compared heterosexual cisgender women with asexual individuals who identified as women, non-binary, or trans. The heterosexual group included individuals with Sexual Interest/Arousal Disorder (SIAD). The heterosexual SIAD group fixated faster and more often on sexual stimuli compared to the asexual group, indicating that asexuality is distinct from psychological disorders like SIAD. [166]

Health of LGBTQ+ people of color

In a review of research, Balmsam, Molina, et al., found that "LGBT issues were addressed in 3,777 articles dedicated to public health; of these, 85% omitted information on race/ethnicity of participants". [168] [169] However, studies that have noted race have found significant health disparities between white LGBTQ+ people and LGBTQ+ people of color. LGBTQ+ health research has also been criticized for lack of diversity in that, for example, a study may call for lesbians, but many black and minority ethnic groups do not use the term lesbian or gay to describe themselves. [170]

There have not been many studies dedicated to researching health issues in LGBTQ+ people of color until fairly recently. Studies have determined that LGBTQ+ individuals have an elevated risk of early mortality and more mental and physical health issues than heterosexual individuals.  In particular, A study conducted by Kim, Jen, Fredriksen-Goldsen published in 2017 delved deeper into the health disparities found among LGBT older adults. It is well known in comparison with white LGBT older adults, black and Latino LGBT older adults tend to have a lower quality of life in relation to their health. The study finds that this is due to a variety of factors, including discrimination, educational attainment, income levels, and social resources. Black LGBT adults experienced higher levels of LGBT discrimination than their white counterparts. However, the study found that black and Latino LGBT adults had comparable mental health to white LGBT elders, presumed to be due to increased levels of spirituality characteristic of Latino and African American communities. [171]

The influences of racism, homophobia, and transphobia can have detrimental effects on mental health of LGBTQ+ people of color, especially in intersection with one another. Velez, Polihronakis et al.  look at prior research that indicates that experiences of homophobia and internalized homophobia are associated with poor mental health. Similar research also indicates that racism and internalized racism are associated with poor mental health as well. When combined, discrimination and internalized oppression interact with one another and contribute to psychological distress. Both homophobia and racism contribute additively to distress, but it was noted that homophobic discrimination and internalized racism had the most significant and detrimental effects on well-being. This study shows similar results to previous research in this aspect. This pattern was also seen in a sample of LGBT Latinx people. [172]

There are significant gaps in knowledge regarding health disparities among transgender individuals. In general, transgender individuals tends to be effected the most acutely by LGBTQ+ issues. This is even more prominent in transgender people of color. Transgender individuals are also more likely to experience greater socioeconomic disadvantages, greater stressors, and more exposure to traumatic events. Transgender individuals, particularly transgender individuals of color, struggle with access and discriminatory treatment when seeking medical and mental health care access.[ citation needed ]

Transgender people and people of color both struggle with poor health care experiences, both medical and regarding mental health, in the United States. When looking at the experiences of transgender people of color, healthcare provider's assumptions and biases about them negatively influence their healthcare experience. Even when seeking care from LGBT specific or LGBT friendly health care providers, people of color often worry about experiencing racism. Positive healthcare experiences for transgender people of color can most often be attributed to provider's respect and knowledge around gender identity and sexuality, as well as cultural competency. [173]

LGBT people also routinely struggle with medical and mental health care access in relation to the general public. Transgender people as noted above, transgender and gender nonconforming people are significantly more likely  to express concerns about how they will be treated in seeking healthcare. LGBT people of color and LGBT people with low incomes were found to be more likely to experience care that was discriminatory and substandard. In particular, transgender people of color and transgender people with low incomes were more likely to experience care that is discriminatory and substandard. These issues are highlighted in health care institutions serving populations with limited access, options, or significant health care disparities. This is particularly true of public hospitals, which have fewer resources than nonprofit hospitals and academic medical centers, and are under deeper financial pressures. Public hospitals have very little incentive to invest in care for marginalized populations, and as such there has been very little progress on LGBT inclusion in health care. The healthcare community itself has contributed to LGBT health disparities, through prejudice and inadequate knowledge. Correcting these disparities will require a significant investment by the healthcare system. [174]

A study conducted by Gowin, Taylor, Dunnington, Alshuwaiyer, and Cheney researches the needs of this demographic. All of the transgender asylum seekers studied had experienced some form of threat, physical assault, and/or sexual assault while living in Mexico. Stressors were reduced upon arrival in the United States, but not all and few were eliminated. Stressors included assaults (verbal, physical, and sexual), unstable environments, fear of safety, concealing undocumented status, and economic insecurity. These lead to multiple health consequences, including mental illness, sleep issues, isolation, substance use, and suicidal tendencies. Asylum seekers often had difficulties accessing health care services for hormones, and often withheld information during treatment for fear of being reported for holding undocumented status. Distrust of authority figures is not uncommon in minority groups. Methods of contact that allow trust should be built to encourage access to health services. Health promotion practices have found some success; including the use of lay health workers, which also has the benefit of employing community members. A focus on inclusive and non-judgmental communication methods in training and development can also help reduce distrust of health services by transgender and ethnic minority patients. [175]

Healthcare education

Various bodies have called for dedicated teaching on LGBTQ+ issues for healthcare students and professionals, [176] including the World Health Organization [177] and the Association of American Medical Colleges. [178] A 2017 systematic review found that dedicated training improved knowledge, attitudes and practice, but noted that programmes often had minimal involvement by LGBT individuals themselves. [179]

OB/GYN residents in the state of Illinois were asked to complete an online survey in order to assess their confidence to treat LGBTQ+ patients and share their experiences with LGBTQ+ individuals. [45] Approximately 60% of the residents said that they had no experience with LGBTQ+ folks outside of the work setting . [45] In a work setting, the results showed that the majority of the Ob/gyn residents felt unprepared to treat lesbian, bisexual, or transgender patients. [45] About 63% of this group shared that their medical programs provide 1–5 years of LGBTQ+ healthcare training, with some residents saying that they received no education on this in the past year. [45] A specific area that Ob/gyn residents in Illinois reported not feeling prepared to deal with included hormonal therapy for transgender patients. [45] From this study, 90% of Ob/gyn residents report having a strong desire to learn more about how to provide healthcare for the LGBTQ+ community, but due to curriculum crowding, there has been some barriers to achieving this goal. [45]

Several government-funded organizations have launched other initiatives to involve LGBT individuals:

"Healthy People 2020: Lesbian, Gay, Bisexual, and Transgender Health" is a government-funded initiative sponsored by the Office of Disease Prevention and Health Promotion, based on a 10-year agenda with the goal of improving the nation's health in measurable ways. "The Health of Lesbian, Gay, Bisexual, and Transgender People: Building a Foundation for Better Understanding" written by the Institute of Medicine and based on research funded by the National Institutes of Health emphasizes the importance of collecting data on the demographics of LGBT populations, improving methods for collecting this data, and increasing the participation of LGBT individuals in research. "LGBT Health and Well-being" published by the US Department of Health & Human Services (HHS), this 2012 report outlines the LGBT Issues Coordinating Committee's objectives for 2011 and 2012. The HHS also hosts an online center for information on LGBT health, including HHS reports, information on access to health care, and resources organized for specific communities within the LGBT population (including LGBT youth, people living with HIV, refugees, women, and older adults).

In addition, many nonprofit initiatives have worked to connect LGBT people to competent healthcare. OutCare Health and Health Professionals Advancing LGBTQ Equality (formerly known as the Gay & Lesbian Medical Association) hosts an online directories of culturally-competent medical professionals.

In 2019, WAXOH, in partnership with DatingPositives, The Phluid Project, Bi.org, Hairrari, the OUT Foundation, launched #WeNeedAButton, a campaign that calls for patient-matching sites like Yelp and ZocDoc to add a queer-friendly button or filter, so that consumers can easily see which doctors are LGBTQ-friendly. [180] The campaign was launched during Pride 2019, on the 50th anniversary of Stonewall, and was supported by ambassador and journalist Zachary Zane and sexual health advocate Josh Robbins. [181]

Kaiser Permanente, the third-largest health care organization in the country and headquartered in Oakland, has been recognized by the Human Rights Campaign Foundation for its commitment to LGBTQ in its 2018 Healthcare Equality Index, and has designated the organization a "healthcare equality leader" every year since 2010. [182]

Additionally, universities including the University of Michigan have provided Continuing Medical Education courses or modules to OB/GYNs in order to be able to better serve the LGBTQ+ community. [183] There are five modules available on YouTube that are each about fifteen minutes long and cover topics such as gender identity and insurance coverage for transgender individuals. [183] These modules were created by physicians and activists. [183]

COVID-19

In April 2020, educators at the University of Toronto emphasized the need to educate health care practitioners about the vulnerability of LGBTQ+ people in the COVID-19 pandemic. [184] Additionally, during the pandemic, 56% of LGBT youth reported poor mental health. [185]

Health of LGBT youth

Mental health of LGBT youth

In general, LGBT youth face some level of discrimination in the home, school, and among their peers, across many different environments. [186] Local, state, or national laws, are also shown to affect the mental health of LGBT youth, as these laws can affect acceptance and integration of youth in society, as well as medical intervention needed for the prevention of suicide or self-harm. Even just the legalization of same-sex marriage can often lead to a reduction in LGBT adolescent suicide and improved mental health. [187]

Restrictions on gender-affirming care

Transgender youth in the United States, as compared to transgender adults, face many legislative restrictions on gender-affirming care. These restrictions have mainly pertained to gender-affirming surgery and hormone replacement therapy. Restrictions on these methods of care vary from state to state. As of April 2024, there are 23 states that have banned treatment for what is medically necessary care for transgender youths, as well as five states where it is a felony to practice transgender medical care for transgender youth; Idaho, Florida, Oklahoma, Alabama, and North Dakota. [188] These restrictions have led to backlash from many medical organizations, such as the American Psychological Association, the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, and the Endocrine society. [189]

See also

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Transphobia</span> Anti-transgender prejudice

Transphobia consists of negative attitudes, feelings, or actions towards transgender people or transness in general. Transphobia can include fear, aversion, hatred, violence or anger towards people who do not conform to social gender roles. Transphobia is a type of prejudice and discrimination, similar to racism, sexism, or ableism, and it is closely associated with homophobia. People of color who are transgender experience discrimination above and beyond that which can be explained as a simple combination of transphobia and racism.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">LGBTQ community</span> Community and culture of lesbian, gay, bisexual and transgender people

The LGBTQ community is a loosely defined grouping of lesbian, gay, bisexual, transgender, and queer or questioning individuals united by a common culture and social movements. These communities generally celebrate pride, diversity, individuality, and sexuality. LGBTQ activists and sociologists see LGBTQ community-building as a counterweight to heterosexism, homophobia, biphobia, transphobia, sexualism, and conformist pressures that exist in the larger society. The term pride or sometimes gay pride expresses the LGBTQ community's identity and collective strength; pride parades provide both a prime example of the use and a demonstration of the general meaning of the term. The LGBTQ community is diverse in political affiliation. Not all people who are lesbian, gay, bisexual, or transgender consider themselves part of the LGBTQ community.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Biphobia</span> Aversion to bisexual people

Biphobia is aversion toward bisexuality or people who are identified or perceived as being bisexual. Similarly to homophobia, it refers to hatred and prejudice specifically against those identified or perceived as being in the bisexual community. It can take the form of denial that bisexuality is a genuine sexual orientation, or of negative stereotypes about people who are bisexual. Other forms of biphobia include bisexual erasure. Biphobia may also avert towards other sexualities attracted to multiple genders such as pansexuality or polysexuality, as the idea of being attracted to multiple genders is generally the cause of stigma towards bisexuality.

A sexual minority is a demographic whose sexual identity, orientation or practices differ from the majority of the surrounding society. Primarily used to refer to lesbian, gay, bisexual, or non-heterosexual individuals, it can also refer to transgender, non-binary or intersex individuals.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">LGBTQ stereotypes</span> Stereotypes around LGBTQ people and communities

LGBT stereotypes are stereotypes about lesbian, gay, bisexual and transgender (LGBTQ) people based on their sexual orientations, gender identities, or gender expressions. Stereotypical perceptions may be acquired through interactions with parents, teachers, peers and mass media, or, more generally, through a lack of firsthand familiarity, resulting in an increased reliance on generalizations.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Questioning (sexuality and gender)</span> Process of self-exploration

The questioning of one's sexual orientation, sexual identity, gender, or all three is a process of exploration by people who may be unsure, still exploring, or concerned about applying a social label to themselves for various reasons. The letter "Q" is sometimes added to the end of the acronym LGBT ; the "Q" can refer to either queer or questioning.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">LGBT retirement issues in the United States</span>

Many retirement issues for lesbian, gay, bisexual, transgender (LGBTQ) and intersex people are unique from their non-LGBTI counterparts and these populations often have to take extra steps addressing their employment, health, legal and housing concerns to ensure their needs are met. Throughout the United States, "2 million people age 50 and older identify as LGBT, and that number is expected to double by 2030", estimated in a study done by the Institute for Multigenerational Health at the University of Washington. In 1969, the Stonewall Riots marked the start of the modern gay rights movement and increasingly LGBTQ+ people have become more visible and accepted into mainstream cultures. LGBTQ+ elders and retirees are still considered a newer phenomenon creating challenges and opportunities as a range of aging issues are becoming more understood as those who live open lives redefine commonly held beliefs and as retirees newly come out of the closet.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">LGBT people in prison</span> Lesbian, gay, bisexual, transgender and queer people in prison

Lesbian, gay, bisexual, transgender and queer (LGBTQ) people face difficulties in prison such as increased vulnerability to sexual assault, other kinds of violence, and trouble accessing necessary medical care. While much of the available data on LGBTQ inmates comes from the United States, Amnesty International maintains records of known incidents internationally in which LGBTQ prisoners and those perceived to be lesbian, gay, bisexual or transgender have suffered torture, ill-treatment and violence at the hands of fellow inmates as well as prison officials.

Research has found that attempted suicide rates and suicidal ideation among lesbian, gay, bisexual, and transgender (LGBTQ) youth are significantly higher than among the general population.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">LGBTQ sex education</span> Sex education relevant to those who are LGBTQ

LGBTQ sex education is a sex education program within a school, university, or community center that addresses the sexual health needs of LGBTQ people.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Outline of LGBTQ topics</span>

The following outline offers an overview and guide to LGBTQ topics:

<span class="mw-page-title-main">African-American LGBTQ community</span> African-American population within the LGBT community

The African-American LGBT community, otherwise referred to as the Black American LGBT community, is part of the overall LGBTQ culture and overall African-American culture. The initialism LGBT stands for lesbian, gay, bisexual, and transgender.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Domestic violence in same-sex relationships</span>

Domestic violence in same-sex relationships or intragender violence is a pattern of violence or abuse that occurs within same-sex relationships. Domestic violence is an issue that affects people of any sexuality, but there are issues that affect victims of same-sex domestic violence specifically. These issues include homophobia, internalized homophobia, HIV and AIDS stigma, STD risk and other health issues, lack of legal support, and the violence they face being considered less serious than heterosexual domestic violence. Moreover, the issue of domestic violence in same-sex relationships has not been studied as comprehensively as domestic violence in heterosexual relationships. However, there are legal changes being made to help victims of domestic violence in same-sex relationships, as well as organizations that cater specifically to victims of domestic violence in same-sex relationships.

LGBTQ psychology is a field of psychology of surrounding the lives of LGBTQ+ individuals, in the particular the diverse range of psychological perspectives and experiences of these individuals. It covers different aspects such as identity development including the coming out process, parenting and family practices and support for LGBTQ+ individuals, as well as issues of prejudice and discrimination involving the LGBTQ community.

Due to the increased vulnerability that lesbian, gay, bisexual, and transgender (LGBT) youth face compared to their non-LGBT peers, there are notable differences in the mental and physical health risks tied to the social interactions of LGBT youth compared to the social interactions of heterosexual youth. Youth of the LGBT community experience greater encounters with not only health risks, but also violence and bullying, due to their sexual orientation, self-identification, and lack of support from institutions in society.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Sexual assault of LGBT persons</span>

Sexual assault of LGBT people, also known as sexual and gender minorities (SGM), is a form of violence that occurs within the LGBT community. While sexual assault and other forms of interpersonal violence can occur in all forms of relationships, it is found that sexual minorities experience it at rates that are equal to or higher than their heterosexual counterparts. There is a lack of research on this specific problem for the LGBT population as a whole, but there does exist a substantial amount of research on college LGBT students who have experienced sexual assault and sexual harassment.

Queer erasure refers to the tendency to intentionally or unintentionally remove LGBT groups or people from record, or downplay their significance, which includes lesbian, gay, bisexual, transgender, and queer people. This erasure can be found in a number of written and oral texts, including popular and scholarly texts.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">LGBTQ health in South Korea</span>

The health access and health vulnerabilities experienced by the lesbian, gay, bisexual, transgender, queer or questioning, intersex, asexual (LGBTQIA) community in South Korea are influenced by the state's continuous failure to pass anti-discrimination laws that prohibit discrimination based on sexual orientation and gender identity. The construction and reinforcement of the South Korean national subject, "kungmin," and the basis of Confucianism and Christian churches perpetuates heteronormativity, homophobia, discrimination, and harassment towards the LGBTQI community. The minority stress model can be used to explain the consequences of daily social stressors, like prejudice and discrimination, that sexual minorities face that result in a hostile social environment. Exposure to a hostile environment can lead to health disparities within the LGBTQI community, like higher rates of depression, suicide, suicide ideation, and health risk behavior. Korean public opinion and acceptance of the LGBTQI community have improved over the past two decades, but change has been slow, considering the increased opposition from Christian activist groups. In South Korea, obstacles to LGBTQI healthcare are characterized by discrimination, a lack of medical professionals and medical facilities trained to care for LGBTQI individuals, a lack of legal protection and regulation from governmental entities, and the lack of medical care coverage to provide for the health care needs of LGBTQI individuals. The presence of Korean LGBTQI organizations is a response to the lack of access to healthcare and human rights protection in South Korea. It is also important to note that research that focuses on Korean LGBTQI health access and vulnerabilities is limited in quantity and quality as pushback from the public and government continues.

LGBT trauma is the distress an individual experiences due to being a lesbian, gay, bisexual, trans, queer person or from possessing another minoritized sexual or gender identity. This distress can be harmful to the individual and predispose them to trauma- and stressor-related disorders.

People who are LGBT are significantly more likely than those who are not to experience depression, PTSD, and generalized anxiety disorder.

References

  1. "About GLMA". Gay and Lesbian Medical Association. Retrieved 2008-12-28.
  2. 1 2 Elk R (July 2021). Ramalingam SS (ed.). "The intersection of racism, discrimination, bias, and homophobia toward African American sexual minority patients with cancer within the health care system". Cancer . 127 (19). Wiley-Blackwell on behalf of the American Cancer Society: 3500–3504. doi: 10.1002/cncr.33627 . LCCN   50001289. OCLC   01553275. PMID   34287834. S2CID   236158145.
  3. 1 2 3 4 "Guidelines for care of lesbian, gay, bisexual, and transgender patients" (PDF). Gay and Lesbian Medical Association. Archived from the original (PDF) on August 26, 2006. Retrieved 2008-12-28.
  4. 1 2 Gochman DS (31 August 1997). Handbook of Health Behavior Research I: Personal and Social Determinants. Springer. ISBN   9780306454431 via Google Books.
  5. 1 2 3 4 The Health of Lesbian, Gay, Bisexual, and Transgender People: Building a Foundation for Better Understanding. Washington, D.C.: National Academies Press. 2011-06-24. doi:10.17226/13128. ISBN   978-0-309-37909-0. PMID   22013611.
  6. 1 2 Bränström R, Hatzenbuehler ML, Pachankis JE (February 2016). "Sexual orientation disparities in physical health: age and gender effects in a population-based study". Social Psychiatry and Psychiatric Epidemiology. 51 (2): 289–301. doi:10.1007/s00127-015-1116-0. ISSN   0933-7954. PMC   4747986 . PMID   26298574.
  7. 1 2 Williams AJ, Jones C, Arcelus J, Townsend E, Lazaridou A, Michail M (2021). "A systematic review and meta-analysis of victimisation and mental health prevalence among LGBTQ+ young people with experiences of self-harm and suicide". PLOS ONE. 16 (1): e0245268. Bibcode:2021PLoSO..1645268W. doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0245268 . PMC   7822285 . PMID   33481862.
  8. Kirubarajan A, Patel P, Leung S, Park B, Sierra S (May 2021). "Cultural competence in fertility care for lesbian, gay, bisexual, transgender, and queer people: a systematic review of patient and provider perspectives". Fertility and Sterility. 115 (5): 1294–1301. doi: 10.1016/j.fertnstert.2020.12.002 . PMID   33610322.
  9. Klein DA, Berry-Bibee EN, Keglovitz Baker K, Malcolm NM, Rollison JM, Frederiksen BN (May 2018). "Providing quality family planning services to LGBTQIA individuals: a systematic review". Contraception. 97 (5): 378–391. doi:10.1016/j.contraception.2017.12.016. ISSN   1879-0518. PMID   29309754.
  10. 1 2 Meads C, Pennant M, McManus J, Bayliss S (2009). A systematic review of lesbian, gay, bisexual and transgender health in the West Midlands region of the UK compared to published UK research. WMHTAC, Department of Public Health and Epidemiology, University of Birmingham. hdl:2438/9756. ISBN   978-0-7044-2722-8.[ page needed ]
  11. King MB, Semlyen J, See Tai S, Killaspy H, Osborn D, Popelyuk D, Nazareth I (September 2008). "Mental disorders, suicide, and deliberate self harm in lesbian, gay and bisexual people: a systematic review of the literature". BMC Psychiatry. 8 (1). Department of Mental Health Sciences, Royal Free and University College Medical School, University College London: 70. doi: 10.1186/1471-244X-8-70 . PMC   2533652 . PMID   18706118.
  12. "Gay Bullying Statistics - Bullying Statistics". Bullying Statistics. July 7, 2015. Retrieved January 29, 2018.
  13. Warner J, Mckeown É, Griffin M, Johnson K, Ramsay A, Cort C, King M (December 2004). "Rates and predictors of mental illness in gay men, lesbians and bisexual men and women: Results from a survey based in England and Wales". British Journal of Psychiatry. 185 (6): 479–485. doi: 10.1192/bjp.185.6.479 . PMID   15572738.
  14. Rivers I (2001). "The bullying of sexual minorities at school: Its nature and long-term correlates". Educational and Child Psychology. 18 (1): 32–46. doi:10.53841/bpsecp.2001.18.1.32. S2CID   164869191.
  15. Rivers I (2004). "Recollections of Bullying at School and Their Long-Term Implications for Lesbians, Gay Men, and Bisexuals". Crisis. 25 (4): 169–175. doi:10.1027/0227-5910.25.4.169. PMID   15580852. S2CID   32996444.
  16. Wilton T (2000). Sexualities in health and social care: a textbook. Open University Press. ISBN   978-0-335-20026-9.
  17. Wilton T (1999). "Towards an understanding of the cultural roots of homophobia in order to provide a better midwifery service for lesbian clients". Midwifery. 15 (3): 154–164. doi:10.1016/s0266-6138(99)90060-8. PMID   10776240.
  18. Wilton T, Kaufmann T (2001). "Lesbian mothers' experiences of maternity care in the UK". Midwifery. 17 (3): 203–211. doi:10.1054/midw.2001.0261. PMID   11502140.
  19. Hudak N, Bates BR (3 July 2019). "In Pursuit of 'queer-friendly' Healthcare: An Interview Study of How Queer Individuals Select Care Providers". Health Communication. 34 (8): 818–824. doi:10.1080/10410236.2018.1437525. PMID   29482359. S2CID   3584158.
  20. 1 2 3 Singh A, Dandona A, Sharma V, Zaidi SZ (January 2023). "Minority Stress in Emotion Suppression and Mental Distress Among Sexual and Gender Minorities: A Systematic Review". Annals of Neurosciences. 30 (1): 54–69. doi:10.1177/09727531221120356. ISSN   0972-7531. PMC   10259152 . PMID   37313338.
  21. 1 2 Hughes TL, Bochicchio L, Drabble L, Muntinga M, Jukema JS, Veldhuis CB, Bruck S, Bos H (2023-12-18). "Health disparities in one of the world's most progressive countries: a scoping review of mental health and substance use among sexual and gender minority people in the Netherlands". BMC Public Health. 23 (1): 2533. doi: 10.1186/s12889-023-17466-x . ISSN   1471-2458. PMC   10729573 . PMID   38110908.
  22. 1 2 Layland EK, Carter JA, Perry NS, Cienfuegos-Szalay J, Nelson KM, Bonner CP, Rendina HJ (2020-10-12). "A systematic review of stigma in sexual and gender minority health interventions". Translational Behavioral Medicine. 10 (5): 1200–1210. doi:10.1093/tbm/ibz200. ISSN   1869-6716. PMC   7549413 . PMID   33044540.
  23. "What does the scholarly research say about the effects of discrimination on the health of LGBT people?". What We Know. Retrieved 2024-02-22.
  24. "Views of Homosexuality Around the World". Pew Research Center's Global Attitudes Project. 2020-06-25. Retrieved 2020-11-13.
  25. "Public Attitudes toward Homosexuality and Gay Rights across Time and Countries" (PDF).
  26. Medicine Io (2011-03-31). The Health of Lesbian, Gay, Bisexual, and Transgender People: Building a Foundation for Better Understanding. National Academies Press. ISBN   978-0-309-37909-0.
  27. "Lesbian, Gay, Bisexual, and Transgender Health | Healthy People 2020". www.healthypeople.gov. Retrieved 2020-11-13.
  28. Hswen Y, Sewalk KC, Alsentzer E, Tuli G, Brownstein JS, Hawkins JB (October 2018). "Investigating inequities in hospital care among lesbian, gay, bisexual, and transgender (LGBT) individuals using social media". Social Science & Medicine. 215: 92–97. doi:10.1016/j.socscimed.2018.08.031. PMID   30219749. S2CID   52308985.
  29. Bonvicini KA (December 2017). "LGBT healthcare disparities: What progress have we made?". Patient Education and Counseling. 100 (12): 2357–2361. doi:10.1016/j.pec.2017.06.003. PMID   28623053.
  30. Aleshire ME, Ashford K, Fallin-Bennett A, Hatcher J (March 2019). "Primary Care Providers' Attitudes Related to LGBTQ People: A Narrative Literature Review". Health Promotion Practice. 20 (2): 173–187. doi:10.1177/1524839918778835. PMID   29947564. S2CID   206741186.
  31. Fish J (2006). Heterosexism in Health and Social Care. doi:10.1057/9780230800731. hdl: 2086/12379 . ISBN   978-1-349-52062-6.
  32. S. Trettin, E. L. Moses-Kolko, K. L. Wisner (March 2006). "Lesbian perinatal depression and the heterosexism that affects knowledge about this minority population". Archives of Women's Mental Health. 9 (2): 67–73. doi:10.1007/s00737-005-0106-8. PMID   16172835. S2CID   9552331 . Retrieved April 26, 2021.
  33. Heck NC, Flentje A, Cochran BN (August 2013). "Offsetting risks: High school gay-straight alliances and lesbian, gay, bisexual, and transgender (LGBT) youth". Psychology of Sexual Orientation and Gender Diversity. 1 (S): 81–90. doi:10.1037/2329-0382.1.s.81.
  34. Ryan C, Huebner D, Diaz RM, Sanchez J (1 January 2009). "Family Rejection as a Predictor of Negative Health Outcomes in White and Latino Lesbian, Gay, and Bisexual Young Adults". Pediatrics. 123 (1): 346–352. doi:10.1542/peds.2007-3524. PMID   19117902. S2CID   33361972.
  35. Saewyc EM (March 2011). "Research on Adolescent Sexual Orientation: Development, Health Disparities, Stigma, and Resilience". Journal of Research on Adolescence. 21 (1): 256–272. doi:10.1111/j.1532-7795.2010.00727.x. PMC   4835230 . PMID   27099454.
  36. McConnell EA, Birkett M, Mustanski B (December 2016). "Families Matter: Social Support and Mental Health Trajectories Among Lesbian, Gay, Bisexual, and Transgender Youth". Journal of Adolescent Health. 59 (6): 674–680. doi:10.1016/j.jadohealth.2016.07.026. PMC   5217458 . PMID   27707515.
  37. McConnell EA, Birkett MA, Mustanski B (March 2015). "Typologies of Social Support and Associations with Mental Health Outcomes Among LGBT Youth". LGBT Health. 2 (1): 55–61. doi:10.1089/lgbt.2014.0051. PMC   4855776 . PMID   26790019.
  38. Ross LE, Dobinson C, Eady A (March 2010). "Perceived Determinants of Mental Health for Bisexual People: A Qualitative Examination". American Journal of Public Health. 100 (3): 496–502. doi:10.2105/AJPH.2008.156307. PMC   2820049 . PMID   20075326.
  39. Quick D (9 December 2010). "Breakthrough raises possibility of genetic children for same-sex couples" . Retrieved 26 July 2015.
  40. "Timeline of same-sex procreation scientific developments". samesexprocreation.com.
  41. Meads C, Moore D (December 2013). "Breast cancer in lesbians and bisexual women: systematic review of incidence, prevalence and risk studies". BMC Public Health. 13 (1): 1127. doi: 10.1186/1471-2458-13-1127 . ISSN   1471-2458. PMC   3890640 . PMID   24313963.
  42. 2009 Report of the All Party Parliamentary Group on Cancer's Inquiry into Inequalities in Cancer
  43. 1 2 3 "TEN THINGS LESBIANS SHOULD DISCUSS WITH THEIR HEALTH CARE PROVIDERS". Gay and Lesbian Medical Association. Retrieved 2008-12-28.
  44. Struble CB, Lindley LL, Montgomery K, Hardin J, Burcin M (27 July 2010). "Overweight and Obesity in Lesbian and Bisexual College Women". Journal of American College Health. 59 (1): 51–56. doi:10.1080/07448481.2010.483703. PMID   20670929. S2CID   33624318.
  45. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Guerrero-Hall KD, Muscanell R, Garg N, Romero IL, Chor J (April 2021). "Obstetrics and Gynecology Resident Physician Experiences with Lesbian, Gay, Bisexual, Transgender and Queer Healthcare Training". Medical Science Educator. 31 (2): 599–606. doi:10.1007/s40670-021-01227-9. PMC   8368479 . PMID   34457914.
  46. "LGBT health care discrimination (& other rainbow health concerns)". Uncomfortable Revolution. 2019-05-21. Retrieved 2023-07-23.
  47. Waterman L, Voss J (16 January 2015). "HPV, cervical cancer risks, and barriers to care for lesbian women". The Nurse Practitioner. 40 (1): 46–53. doi:10.1097/01.NPR.0000457431.20036.5c. PMID   25437384. S2CID   205414490.
  48. "Noncontraceptive Benefits of Birth Control Pills". www.reproductivefacts.org. Archived from the original on 2022-09-13. Retrieved 2020-07-28.
  49. "Reproductive Health Care and LBT Adults". Williams Institute. Retrieved 2020-07-28.
  50. Charlton BM, Corliss HL, Missmer SA, Rosario M, Spiegelman D, Austin SB (2013). "Sexual orientation differences in teen pregnancy and hormonal contraceptive use: an examination across 2 generations". American Journal of Obstetrics and Gynecology. 209 (3): 204.e1–204.e8. doi:10.1016/j.ajog.2013.06.036. PMC   3758403 . PMID   23796650.
  51. Everett BG, Higgins JA, Haider S, Carpenter E (January 2019). "Do Sexual Minorities Receive Appropriate Sexual and Reproductive Health Care and Counseling?". Journal of Women's Health. 28 (1): 53–62. doi:10.1089/jwh.2017.6866. PMC   6343198 . PMID   30372369.
  52. Jones RK, Jerman J, Charlton BM (September 2018). "Sexual Orientation and Exposure to Violence Among U.S. Patients Undergoing Abortion". Obstetrics & Gynecology. 132 (3): 605–611. doi: 10.1097/AOG.0000000000002732 . PMC   10552916 . PMID   30095763.
  53. Tornello SL, Riskind RG, Patterson CJ (2014). "Sexual Orientation and Sexual and Reproductive Health Among Adolescent Young Women in the United States". Journal of Adolescent Health. 54 (2): 160–168. doi:10.1016/j.jadohealth.2013.08.018. PMID   24157195.
  54. Everett BG, McCabe KF, Hughes TL (2017). "Sexual Orientation Disparities in Mistimed and Unwanted Pregnancy Among Adult Women: Sexual Orientation and Unintended Pregnancy". Perspectives on Sexual and Reproductive Health. 49 (3): 157–165. doi:10.1363/psrh.12032. PMC   5819992 . PMID   28598550.
  55. Charlton BM, Everett BG, Light A, Jones RK, Janiak E, Gaskins AJ, Chavarro JE, Moseson H, Sarda V, Austin SB (March 2020). "Sexual Orientation Differences in Pregnancy and Abortion Across the Lifecourse". Women's Health Issues. 30 (2): 65–72. doi:10.1016/j.whi.2019.10.007. PMC   7071993 . PMID   31810786.
  56. Larsson AK, Dykes AK (December 2009). "Care during pregnancy and childbirth in Sweden: Perspectives of lesbian women". Midwifery. 25 (6): 682–690. doi:10.1016/j.midw.2007.10.004. PMID   18222576.
  57. Singer RB (October 2012). "Improving Prenatal Care for Pregnant Lesbians". International Journal of Childbirth Education. 27 (4). Minneapolis: 37–40. ProQuest   1095482667.
  58. Pharris A, Bucchio J, Dotson C, Davidson W (July 2016). "Supporting Lesbian Couples During Pregnancy". International Journal of Childbirth Education. 31 (3). Minneapolis: 23–24. ProQuest   1819099907.
  59. "How Doulas and Midwives Around the Country Are Filling the Gaps in Birth Care for Queer Families". Rewire.News. Retrieved 2018-04-24.
  60. Ross LE, Steele LS, Epstein R (June 2006). "Service Use and Gaps in Services for Lesbian and Bisexual Women During Donor Insemination, Pregnancy, and the Postpartum Period". Journal of Obstetrics and Gynaecology Canada. 28 (6): 505–511. doi:10.1016/S1701-2163(16)32181-8. PMID   16857118.
  61. Röndahl G, Bruhner E, Lindhe J (November 2009). "Heteronormative communication with lesbian families in antenatal care, childbirth and postnatal care". Journal of Advanced Nursing. 65 (11): 2337–2344. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2648.2009.05092.x. PMID   19737324.
  62. Slimowicz J, Siev J, Brochu PM (28 February 2020). "Impact of Status-Based Rejection Sensitivity on Depression and Anxiety Symptoms in Gay Men". International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health. 17 (5): 1546. doi: 10.3390/ijerph17051546 . PMC   7084542 . PMID   32121193.
  63. 1 2 3 4 "TEN THINGS GAY MEN SHOULD DISCUSS WITH THEIR HEALTH CARE PROVIDERS". Gay and Lesbian Medical Association. Retrieved 2008-12-28.
  64. 1 2 "Depression in the Gay Community". Gay.com News. Archived from the original on 2008-09-07. Retrieved 2008-12-28.
  65. 1 2 "Suicide rates among gay men eight times higher". STV. April 25, 2012. Archived from the original on June 15, 2013.
  66. Hobbes M (2017-03-01). "Together Alone: the Epidemic of Gay Loneliness". The Huffington Post Highline. Retrieved 2019-12-03.
  67. Henley J (14 November 2019). "Suicide rates fall after gay marriage legalised in Sweden and Denmark". The Guardian.
  68. "Statistics from the Ministry of Health, Labor and Welfare". Archived from the original on 2008-12-13.
  69. Go VF, Srikrishnan AK, Sivaram S, Murugavel GK, Galai N, Johnson SC, Sripaipan T, Solomon S, Celentano DD (1 March 2004). "High HIV Prevalence and Risk Behaviors in Men Who Have Sex With Men in Chennai, India". Journal of Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndromes. 35 (3): 314–319. doi: 10.1097/00126334-200403010-00014 . PMID   15076248. S2CID   26020807.
  70. Lee HC, Ko NY, Lee NY, Chang CM, Ko WC (1 May 2008). "Seroprevalence of Viral Hepatitis and Sexually Transmitted Disease Among Adults with Recently Diagnosed HIV Infection in Southern Taiwan, 2000–2005: Upsurge in Hepatitis C Virus Infections Among Injection Drug Users". Journal of the Formosan Medical Association. 107 (5): 404–411. doi: 10.1016/S0929-6646(08)60106-0 . PMID   18492625.
  71. Hung CC, Ji DD, Sun HY, Lee YT, Hsu SY, Chang SY, Wu CH, Chan YH, Hsiao CF, Liu WC, Colebunders R (February 27, 2008). "Increased Risk for Entamoeba histolytica Infection and Invasive Amebiasis in HIV Seropositive Men Who Have Sex with Men in Taiwan". PLOS Negl. Trop. Dis. 27 (2): e175. doi: 10.1371/journal.pntd.0000175 . PMC   2254204 . PMID   18301730.
  72. "At risk and neglected:four key populations". UNAIDS 2006 report on the global AIDS epidemic (PDF). June 2006. Archived from the original (PDF) on January 4, 2007.
  73. Research Cf (2019-04-11). "Questions about Blood - Revised Recommendations for Reducing the Risk of Human Immunodeficiency Virus Transmission by Blood and Blood Products - Questions and Answers". FDA.
  74. "Estimated numbers of persons living with HIV/AIDS at the end of 2006, by race/ethnicity, sex, and transmission category—33 states with confidential name-based HIV infection reporting". Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. April 1, 2008. Archived from the original on May 4, 2008.
  75. De Wit JB, Murphy DA, Adam PC, Donohoe S (2013). "Strange Bedfellows: HIV-Related Stigma Among Gay Men in Australia". Stigma, Discrimination and Living with HIV/AIDS. pp. 289–308. doi:10.1007/978-94-007-6324-1_17. ISBN   978-94-007-6323-4.
  76. "The History of AIDS and ARC" . Retrieved May 6, 2021.
  77. Centers for Disease Control (CDC) (18 June 1982). "A cluster of Kaposi's sarcoma and Pneumocystis carinii pneumonia among homosexual male residents of Los Angeles and Orange Counties, California". Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report. 31 (23): 305–307. PMID   6811844.
  78. Iott BE, Loveluck J, Benton A, Golson L, Kahle E, Lam J, Bauermeister JA, Veinot TC (9 March 2022). "The impact of stigma on HIV testing decisions for gay, bisexual, queer and other men who have sex with men: a qualitative study". BMC Public Health. 22 (1): 471. doi: 10.1186/s12889-022-12761-5 . PMC   8908600 . PMID   35264132.
  79. 1 2 "Consolidated guidelines on HIV prevention, testing, treatment, service delivery and monitoring: recommendations for a public health approach". www.who.int. Retrieved 2024-02-23.
  80. "Pre-Exposure Prophylaxis (PrEP) | HIV Risk and Prevention | HIV/AIDS". www.cdc.gov. 2023-03-08. Retrieved 2024-02-23.
  81. Wolitski RJ, Fenton KA (April 2011). "Sexual Health, HIV, and Sexually Transmitted Infections among Gay, Bisexual, and Other Men Who Have Sex with Men in the United States". AIDS and Behavior. 15 (S1): 9–17. doi:10.1007/s10461-011-9901-6. PMID   21331797. S2CID   31770928.
  82. Fields EL, Bogart LM, Smith KC, Malebranche DJ, Ellen J, Schuster MA (March 2012). "HIV Risk and Perceptions of Masculinity Among Young Black Men Who Have Sex With Men". Journal of Adolescent Health. 50 (3): 296–303. doi:10.1016/j.jadohealth.2011.07.007. PMC   3281559 . PMID   22325136.
  83. Feldman MB, Meyer IH (2007). "Eating disorders in diverse lesbian, gay, and bisexual populations". Int J Eat Disord. 40 (3): 218–26. doi:10.1002/eat.20360. PMC   2080655 . PMID   17262818.
  84. Smith AR, Hawkeswood SE, Bodell LP, Joiner TE (2011). "Muscularity versus leanness: an examination of body ideals and predictors of disordered eating in heterosexual and gay college students". Body Image. 8 (3): 232–6. doi:10.1016/j.bodyim.2011.03.005. PMC   3124584 . PMID   21561818.
  85. "Gay men are less likely to be obese, study finds". Science Recorder. July 17, 2014. Archived from the original on April 3, 2017. Retrieved July 16, 2015.
  86. Guss JR, Drescher J (2000). Addictions in the Gay and Lesbian Community. Haworth Press. ISBN   978-0-7890-1037-7 . Retrieved May 6, 2021.
  87. Susan D. Cochran, Frank C. Bandiera, Vickie M. Mays (2013). "Sexual Orientation–Related Differences in Tobacco Use and Secondhand Smoke Exposure Among US Adults Aged 20 to 59 Years: 2003–2010 National Health and Nutrition Examination Surveys". American Journal of Public Health. 103 (10): 1837–1844. doi:10.2105/ajph.2013.301423. PMC   3780743 . PMID   23948019.
  88. Russell S. T., Joyner K. (2001). "Adolescent sexual orientation and suicide risk: Evidence from a national study". American Journal of Public Health. 91 (8): 1276–1281. doi:10.2105/ajph.91.8.1276. PMC   1446760 . PMID   11499118.
  89. Robin L, Brener ND, Donahue SF, Hack T, Hale K, Goodenow C (April 2002). "Associations between health risk behaviors and opposite-, same-, and both-sex sexual partners in representative samples of Vermont and Massachusetts high school students". Archives of Pediatrics & Adolescent Medicine. 156 (4): 349–355. doi:10.1001/archpedi.156.4.349. PMID   11929369. S2CID   11406427.
  90. 1 2 Koh A. S., Ross L. K. (2006). "Mental health issues: A comparison of lesbian, bisexual and heterosexual women". Journal of Homosexuality. 51 (1): 33–57. doi:10.1300/j082v51n01_03. PMID   16893825. S2CID   30991404.
  91. Mathy R., Lehmann B., Kerr D. (2003). "Bisexual and Transgender Identities in a Nonclinical Sample of North americans: Suicidal Intent, Behavioral Diffulties, and Mental Health Treatment". Journal of Bisexuality. 3 (3–4): 93–110. doi:10.1300/j159v03n03_07. S2CID   142011889.
  92. Balsam K. F., Beauchaine T. P., Mickey R. M., Rothblum E. D. (2005). "Mental health of lesbian, gay, bisexual and heterosexual siblings: Effects of gender, sexual orientation, and family". Journal of Abnormal Psychology. 114 (3): 471–476. CiteSeerX   10.1.1.530.9976 . doi:10.1037/0021-843x.114.3.471. PMID   16117584.
  93. Forrest S. "News Bureau - ILLINOIS".
  94. Udry J. R., Chantala K. (2002). "Risk assessment of adolescents with same-sex relationships". Journal of Adolescent Health. 31 (1): 84–92. doi:10.1016/s1054-139x(02)00374-9. PMID   12090969.
  95. Eisenberg M. E., Wechsler H. (2003). "Substance use behaviors among college students with same-sex and opposite-sex experience: Results from a national study". Addictive Behaviors. 28 (5): 1913–1923. doi:10.1016/s0306-4603(01)00286-6. PMID   12788264.
  96. Ford J. A., Jasinski J. L. (2006). "Sexual orientation and substance use among college students". Addictive Behaviors. 31 (3): 404–413. doi:10.1016/j.addbeh.2005.05.019. PMID   15970397.
  97. Russell S. T., Driscoll A. K., Truong N. (2002). "Adolescent same-sex romantic attractions and relationships: Implications for substance use and abuse". American Journal of Public Health. 92 (2): 198–202. doi:10.2105/ajph.92.2.198. PMC   1447042 . PMID   11818291.
  98. McCabe S. E., Hughes T. L., Bostwick W., Boyd C.J. (2005). "Assessment of difference in dimensions of sexual orientation: Implications for substance use research in a college-age population". Journal of Studies on Alcohol and Drugs. 66 (5): 620–629. doi:10.15288/jsa.2005.66.620. PMC   3156552 . PMID   16331847.
  99. Case P, Austin SB, Hunter DJ, Manson JE, Malspeis S, Willett WC, Spiegelman D (December 2004). "Sexual orientation, health risk factors, and physical functioning in the nurses' health study II". Journal of Women's Health . 13 (9): 1033–1047. doi:10.1089/jwh.2004.13.1033. PMID   15665660.
  100. Daling J. R., Madeleine M. M., Johnson L. G., Schwartz S. M., Shera K. A., Wurscher M. A., Carter J. J., McDougall J. K. (2004). "Human papillomavirus, smoking, and sexual practices in the etiology of anal cancer". Cancer. 101 (2): 270–80. doi: 10.1002/cncr.20365 . PMID   15241823. S2CID   1841043.
  101. Jeffries WL, Dodge B (July 2007). "Male bisexuality and condom use at last sexual encounter: Results from a national Survey". Journal of Sex Research . 44 (3): 278–289. doi:10.1080/00224490701443973. PMID   17879171. S2CID   44962530.
  102. Zule W. A., Bobashev G. V., Wechsberg W. M., Costenbader E. C., Coomes C. M. (2009). "Behaviorally bisexual men and their risk behaviors with men and women". Journal of Urban Health . 86 (Suppl 1): 48–62. doi:10.1007/s11524-009-9366-3. PMC   2705485 . PMID   19513854.
  103. Solarz AL (1999). Lesbian health: Current assessment and directions for the future. Washington, D.C.: Institute of Medicine and National Academies Press. ISBN   9780309174060.
  104. "National Intimate Partner and Sexual Violence Survey (NISVS): 2010 findings on victimization by sexual orientation". Centres for Disease Control and Prevention. 2019-02-07.
  105. 1 2 3 4 5 "TEN THINGS Transgender persons SHOULD DISCUSS WITH THEIR HEALTH CARE PROVIDERS". Gay and Lesbian Medical Association. Retrieved 2008-12-28.
  106. Coleman E, Bockting W, Botzer M, Cohen-Kettenis P, DeCuypere G, Feldman J, Fraser L, Green J, Knudson G, Meyer WJ, Monstrey S, Adler RK, Brown GR, Devor AH, Ehrbar R, Ettner R, Eyler E, Garofalo R, Karasic DH, Lev AI, Mayer G, Meyer-Bahlburg H, Hall BP, Pfaefflin F, Rachlin K, Robinson B, Schechter LS, Tangpricha V, van Trotsenburg M, Vitale A, Winter S, Whittle S, Wylie KR, Zucker K (1 August 2012). "Standards of Care for the Health of Transsexual, Transgender, and Gender-Nonconforming People, Version 7". International Journal of Transgenderism. 13 (4): 165–232. doi:10.1080/15532739.2011.700873. S2CID   39664779.
  107. The Yogyakarta Principles, Principle 17. The Rights to the Highest Attainable Standard of Health
  108. "Gender Dysphoria: Guidelines (4 Dec 2016)". NHS Choices. 23 October 2017. Retrieved 20 January 2018.
  109. "Progress for Wales' first transgender clinic 'unacceptable'". BBC News. 20 January 2018. Retrieved 22 January 2018.
  110. Venkatesan Chakrapani, Priya Babu, Timothy Ebenezer. "Hijras in sex work face discrimination in the Indian health-care system" (PDF).
  111. Khan SI, Hussain MI, Parveen S, Bhuiyan MI, Gourab G, Sarker GF, Arafat SM, Sikder J (2009). "Living on the Extreme Margin: Social Exclusion of the Transgender Population (Hijra) in Bangladesh". Journal of Health, Population and Nutrition. 27 (4): 441–451. doi:10.3329/jhpn.v27i4.3388. PMC   2928103 . PMID   19761079.
  112. Grant JM, Mottett LA, Tanis J (2011). "National Transgender Discrimination Survey" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on July 4, 2011. Retrieved May 6, 2021.
  113. 1 2 3 Grant J, Mottet L, Tanis J, Harrison J, Herman J, Keisling M (2011). "Injustice at Every Turn: A Report of the National Transgender Discrimination Survey" (PDF). Washington: National Center for Transgender Equality and National Gay and Lesbian Task Force. Archived from the original (PDF) on July 4, 2011.
  114. "2015 U.S. Transgender Survey" (PDF). National Center for Transgender Equality. Retrieved 20 January 2018.
  115. Greenbaum A, Wrigley J, George T (3 January 2017). "Federal Judge Blocks Transgender Protections". Fisher Phillips. Retrieved 20 January 2018.
  116. Green E (7 June 2017). "The Man Behind Trump's Religious-Freedom Agenda for Health Care". The Atlantic. Retrieved 20 January 2018.
  117. "Know Your Rights: Healthcare". National Center for Transgender Equality. Retrieved 20 January 2018.
  118. McEvers K (18 January 2018). "Roger Severino Discusses The HHS Division Of Conscience And Religious Freedom". All Things Considered. NPR. Retrieved 20 January 2018.
  119. Kodjak A, Wroth C (24 May 2019). "Trump Administration Proposes Rule To Reverse Protections For Transgender Patients". NPR. Retrieved 2019-05-25.
  120. "HHS Proposes to Revise ACA Section 1557 Rule to Enforce Civil Rights in Healthcare, Conform to Law, and Eliminate Billions in Unnecessary Costs". HHS.gov. Office for Civil Rights (OCR). 2019-05-23. Retrieved 2019-05-25.
  121. Diamond D (24 April 2020). "Trump team moves to scrap protections for LGBTQ patients". POLITICO. Retrieved 2020-04-24.
  122. Slovacek R. "Texas Senate Approves 'License To Discriminate' Bill". No. 2 April 2019. Instinct. Retrieved 3 April 2019.
  123. Bollinger A (26 March 2019). "Texas Republicans advance a bill that would allow doctors to refuse LGBTQ patients". LGBTQ Nation. Retrieved 28 March 2019.
  124. Weixel N (2019-10-15). "Federal judge overturns ObamaCare transgender protections". TheHill. Retrieved 2019-10-15.
  125. "Governor Lee Signs Anti-Trans Healthcare Bill into Law". Human Rights Campaign. 19 May 2021. Retrieved 2022-10-29.
  126. Senate Bill No. 126 (PDF) (Amendment to Senate Bill 126). TN Senate. 2021. p. 1.
  127. 1 2 Kraschel K (2022). "Legislation restricting gender-affirming care for transgender youth: Politics eclipse healthcare". Cell Reports Medicine. 3 (8): 100719. doi:10.1016/j.xcrm.2022.100719. PMC   9418844 . PMID   35977463.
  128. 1 2 Gorton N, Grubb H (2014). Erickson-Schroth L (ed.). Trans Bodies, Trans Selves. Oxford: Oxford University Press. pp.  215–240. ISBN   978-0-19-932535-1.
  129. "Finding Insurance for Transgender-Related Healthcare". Human Rights Campaign. Archived from the original on December 15, 2011. Retrieved 2 March 2015.
  130. Hartocollis A (11 December 2014). "Insurers in New York Must Cover Gender Reassignment Surgery, Cuomo Says". The New York Times.
  131. Spade D (1 May 2010). "Medicaid Policy & Gender-Confirming Healthcare for Trans People: An Interview with Advocates". Seattle Journal for Social Justice. 8 (2).
  132. Khan L (2011). "Transgender health at the crossroads: legal norms, insurance markets, and the threat of healthcare reform". Yale Journal of Health Policy, Law, and Ethics. 11 (2): 375–418. hdl:20.500.13051/5889. PMID   22136012.
  133. "New York Drops Medicaid's Ban on Trans Health Care". The Advocate. 2014-12-18. Retrieved 2 March 2015.
  134. "Victory! Oregon's Medicaid Program to Cover Transgender Health Care". The Transgender Law Center. 2014-08-27. Retrieved 2 March 2015.
  135. de Nie I, de Blok CJ, van der Sluis TM, Barbé E, Pigot GL, Wiepjes CM, Nota NM, van Mello NM, Valkenburg NE, Huirne J, Gooren LJ, van Moorselaar RJ, Dreijerink KM, den Heijer M (1 September 2020). "Prostate Cancer Incidence under Androgen Deprivation: Nationwide Cohort Study in Trans Women Receiving Hormone Treatment". The Journal of Clinical Endocrinology & Metabolism. 105 (9): e3293–e3299. doi:10.1210/clinem/dgaa412. PMC   7379905 . PMID   32594155.
  136. Bazargan M, Galvan F (2012). "Perceived discrimination and depression among low-income Latina male-to-female transgender women". BMC Public Health. 12: 663. doi: 10.1186/1471-2458-12-663 . PMC   3497862 . PMID   22894701.
  137. Jacqueline Gahagan (2013). Women and HIV Prevention in Canada: Implications For Research, Policy and Practise. Canadian Scholars' Press. ISBN   9780889614864.
  138. Bockting WO, Miner MH, Swinburne Romine RE, Hamilton A, Coleman E (14 March 2013). "Stigma, Mental Health, and Resilience in an Online Sample of the US Transgender Population". Am J Public Health. 103 (5): 943–951. doi:10.2105/AJPH.2013.301241. PMC   3698807 . PMID   23488522.
  139. 1 2 3 4 Jay McNeil, Louis Bailey, Sonja Ellis, James Morton, Maeve Regan (September 2012). "Trans Mental Health Study 2012" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 2014-09-08. Retrieved 2013-04-28.
  140. 1 2 Lombardi E (2007). "Public Health and Trans-People: Barriers to Care and Strategies to Improve Treatment". The Health of Sexual Minorities. pp. 638–652. doi:10.1007/978-0-387-31334-4_26. ISBN   978-0-387-28871-0.
  141. "Suicide Attempts among Transgender and Gender Non-Conforming Adults" (PDF). Retrieved 16 April 2014.
  142. 1 2 3 Lawrence AA (2007). "Transgender Health Concerns". The Health of Sexual Minorities. pp. 473–505. doi:10.1007/978-0-387-31334-4_19. ISBN   978-0-387-28871-0.
  143. Gender Identity Disorders in DSM IV, TR (PDF).
  144. "APA Removes Gender Identity Disorder from DSM-V". Ms Magazine.
  145. Zucker KJ, Spitzer RL (January 2005). "Was the Gender Identity Disorder of Childhood Diagnosis Introduced into DSM-III as a Backdoor Maneuver to Replace Homosexuality? A Historical Note". Journal of Sex & Marital Therapy. 31 (1): 31–42. doi:10.1080/00926230590475251. PMID   15841704. S2CID   22589255.
  146. Sanchez NF, Sanchez JP, Danoff A (2009). "Health Care Utilization, Barriers to Care, and Hormone Usage Among Male-to-Female Transgender Persons in New York City". Am J Public Health. 99 (4): 713–9. doi:10.2105/AJPH.2007.132035. PMC   2661470 . PMID   19150911.
  147. "How testosterone therapy affects fertility". helloclue.com. Retrieved 2021-12-10.
  148. Jeffrey H. Herbst, Elizabeth D. Jacobs, Teresa J. Finlayson, Vel S. McKleroy, Mary Spink Neumann, Nicole Crepaz (2008). "Estimating HIV Prevalence and Risk Behaviors of Transgender Persons in the United States: A Systematic Review". AIDS and Behavior. 12 (1): 1–17. doi: 10.1007/s10461-007-9299-3 . PMID   17694429. S2CID   22946778.
  149. van Griensven F, Na Ayutthaya PP, Wilson E (March 2013). "HIV surveillance and prevention in transgender women". The Lancet Infectious Diseases. 13 (3): 185–186. doi:10.1016/S1473-3099(12)70326-2. PMID   23260127.
  150. Murrill CS, Liu KL, Guilin V, Colón ER, Dean L, Buckley LA, Sanchez T, Finlayson TJ, Torian LV (June 2008). "HIV Prevalence and Associated Risk Behaviors in New York City's House Ball Community". Am J Public Health. 98 (6): 1074–80. doi:10.2105/AJPH.2006.108936. PMC   2377289 . PMID   18445806.
  151. Silva-Santisteban A, Eng S, de la Inglesia G, Falistocco C, Mazin R (July 17, 2016). "HIV Prevention Among Transgender Women in Latin American: implementation, gaps and challenges". Journal of the International AIDS Society. 19 (3Suppl 2): 20799. doi: 10.7448/IAS.19.3.20799 . PMC   4949309 . PMID   27431470.
  152. Gretchen P. Kenagy (2005). "Transgender Health: Findings from Two Needs Assessment Studies in Philadelphia" (PDF). Health and Social Work. 30 (1). Archived from the original (PDF) on November 2, 2013.
  153. Mathews, Jennifer, Parkhill, Amy L., Gainsburg, Jeanne, Fearing, Scott (2011). "The Need for Transgender Health Content in the Pharmacy Curriculum". Innovations in Pharmacy. 2 (4).
  154. Walter O. Bockting, Eric Avery (2006). Transgender Health And HIV Prevention: Needs Assessment Studies from Transgender Communities Across the United States. CRC Press. p. 6. ISBN   9780789030153.
  155. San Francisco State University (December 6, 2010). "Family Acceptance of Lesbian, Gay, Bisexual and Transgender Youth Protects Against Depression, Substance Abuse, Suicide, Study Suggests". ScienceDaily.
  156. Benotsch EG, Zimmerman R, Cathers L, McNulty S, Pierce J, Heck T, Perrin PB, Snipes D (2013). "Non-medical use of prescription drugs, polysubstance use, and mental health in transgender adults". Drug and Alcohol Dependence. 132 (1–2): 391–394. doi:10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2013.02.027. PMID   23510637.
  157. Halley Crissman MD, Stroumsa D (2020-08-05). "Gynecologic care considerations for transmasculine people". Contemporary Ob/Gyn Journal. Vol 65 No 08. 64 (8).
  158. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 "Affirming Primary Care for Intersex People 2020 » LGBTQIA+ Health Education Center". LGBTQIA+ Health Education Center. August 6, 2020. Retrieved 2024-02-23.
  159. Kreukels BP, Cohen-Kettenis PT, Roehle R, van de Grift TC, Slowikowska-Hilczer J, Claahsen-van der Grinten H, Lindén Hirschberg A, de Vries AL, Reisch N, Bouvattier C, Nordenström A, Thyen U, Köhler B (2019-06-18). "Sexuality in Adults with Differences/Disorders of Sex Development (DSD): Findings from the dsd-LIFE Study". Journal of Sex & Marital Therapy. 45 (8): 688–705. doi: 10.1080/0092623x.2019.1610123 . ISSN   0092-623X. PMID   31034334.
  160. 1 2 3 Roen K (2019-03-25). "Intersex or Diverse Sex Development: Critical Review of Psychosocial Health Care Research and Indications for Practice". The Journal of Sex Research. 56 (4–5): 511–528. doi:10.1080/00224499.2019.1578331. ISSN   0022-4499. PMID   30907687.
  161. Rynja S, de Jong T, Bosch J, de Kort L (October 2011). "Functional, cosmetic and psychosexual results in adult men who underwent hypospadias correction in childhood". Journal of Pediatric Urology. 7 (5): 504–515. doi:10.1016/j.jpurol.2011.02.008. ISSN   1477-5131. PMID   21429804.
  162. Almasri J, Zaiem F, Rodriguez-Gutierrez R, Tamhane SU, Iqbal AM, Prokop LJ, Speiser PW, Baskin LS, Bancos I, Murad MH (2018-09-28). "Genital Reconstructive Surgery in Females With Congenital Adrenal Hyperplasia: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis". The Journal of Clinical Endocrinology & Metabolism. 103 (11): 4089–4096. doi:10.1210/jc.2018-01863. ISSN   0021-972X. PMID   30272250.
  163. "AMSA Issues Statement to Defer Gender "Normalizing" Surgeries for Children Born as Intersex". AMSA. Retrieved 2024-02-23.
  164. "Eliminating forced, coercive and otherwise involuntary sterilization". www.who.int. Retrieved 2024-02-23.
  165. "Genital Surgeries in Intersex Children". www.aafp.org. Retrieved 2024-02-23.
  166. 1 2 3 4 5 6 Hille JJ (2023-02-01). "Beyond sex: A review of recent literature on asexuality". Current Opinion in Psychology. 49: 101516. doi:10.1016/j.copsyc.2022.101516. ISSN   2352-250X. PMID   36495711. S2CID   253534170.
  167. Cuthbert K (2022-10-03). "Asexuality and epistemic injustice: a gendered perspective". Journal of Gender Studies. 31 (7): 840–851. doi: 10.1080/09589236.2021.1966399 . ISSN   0958-9236.
  168. Ellen Taylor, Andrew Jantzen, Barbara Clow (2013). Rethinking LGBTQ Health (PDF). Halifax, NS, Canada: Atlantic Centre of Excellence for Women's Health. ISBN   978-0981045986. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2016-01-26.
  169. Balsam KF, Molina Y, Beadnell B, Simoni J, Walters K (April 2011). "Measuring multiple minority stress: The LGBT People of Color Microaggressions Scale". Cultural Diversity and Ethnic Minority Psychology. 17 (2): 163–174. doi:10.1037/a0023244. PMC   4059824 . PMID   21604840.
  170. Fish J (January 2008). "Navigating Queer Street: Researching the Intersections of Lesbian, Gay, Bisexual and Trans (LGBT) Identities in Health Research". Sociological Research Online. 13 (1): 104–115. doi:10.5153/sro.1652. hdl: 2086/4749 . S2CID   143190806.
  171. Kim HJ, Jen S, Fredriksen-Goldsen KI (13 January 2017). "Race/Ethnicity and Health-Related Quality of Life Among LGBT Older Adults". The Gerontologist. 57 (suppl 1): S30–S39. doi:10.1093/geront/gnw172. PMC   5241754 . PMID   28087793.
  172. Velez BL, Polihronakis CJ, Watson LB, Cox R (January 2019). "Heterosexism, Racism, and the Mental Health of Sexual Minority People of Color". The Counseling Psychologist. 47 (1): 129–159. doi: 10.1177/0011000019828309 . S2CID   150619595.
  173. Howard S (October 2019). "Healthcare Experiences of Transgender People of Color". Journal of Internal Medicine. 34 (10): 2068–2074. doi:10.1007/s11606-019-05179-0. PMC   6816758 . PMID   31385209.
  174. Davis S, Berlinger N (September 2014). "Moral Progress in the Public Safety Net: Access for Transgender and LGB Patients". Hastings Center Report. 44 (s4): S45–S47. doi:10.1002/hast.370. PMID   25231787.
  175. Gowin M, Taylor EL, Dunnington J, Alshuwaiyer G, Cheney MK (May 2017). "Needs of a Silent Minority: Mexican Transgender Asylum Seekers". Health Promotion Practice. 18 (3): 332–340. doi:10.1177/1524839917692750. PMID   28187690. S2CID   206740929.
  176. Salkind, Gishen, Drage, Kavanagh, Potts (2019). "LGBT+ Health Teaching within the Undergraduate Medical Curriculum". International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health. 16 (13): 2305. doi: 10.3390/ijerph16132305 . PMC   6651354 . PMID   31261831.
  177. World Health Organization. "Improving the Health and Well-Being of Lesbian, Gay, Bisexual and Transgender Persons: Report by the Secretariat." World Health Organization: Geneva, Switzerland, 2013. http://www.ghwatch.org/sites/www.ghwatch.org/files/B133-6_LGBT.pdf Archived 2016-08-03 at the Wayback Machine
  178. AAMC Advisory Committee on Sexual Orientation GI, and Sex Development. "Implementing Curricular and Institutional Climate Changes to Improve Health Care for Individuals Who are LGBT, Gender Nonconforming, or Born with DSD." AAMC: Washington, DC, US, 2014.
  179. Sekoni AO, Gale NK, Manga-Atangana B, Bhadhuri A, Jolly K (2017). "The effects of educational curricula and training on LGBT-specific health issues for healthcare students and professionals: A mixed-method systematic review". Journal of the International AIDS Society. 20 (1): 21624. doi:10.7448/ias.20.1.21624. PMC   5577719 . PMID   28782330.
  180. "This Campaign Uses Butt Selfies to Help LGBTQs Get Proper Healthcare". Pride. 2019-06-26. Retrieved 24 July 2019.
  181. Elison M. "Online Extra: Q Agenda: Hashtag campaign aims to identify queer-competent doctors". The Bay Area Reporter. Retrieved 24 July 2019.
  182. Sonkin K (2017-04-05). "Kaiser Permanente earns "leader in LGBTQ healthcare equality" designation". Patch. Retrieved 24 July 2019.
  183. 1 2 3 "Transgender Healthcare Curriculum | Obstetrics and Gynecology | Michigan Medicine". Obstetrics and Gynecology. 2020-09-29. Retrieved 2021-12-10.
  184. Osman L (April 27, 2020). "Researchers Scramble to Inform Doctors of Barriers LGBTQ People Face in Getting COVID-10 Care". CTV News. Retrieved April 26, 2021.
  185. "2022 National Survey on LGBTQ Youth Mental Health". The Trevor Project. Retrieved 2022-10-23.
  186. Staff NA (2024-02-27). "New Research on LGBTQ Teen Suicide Rates". Newport Academy. Retrieved 2024-04-28.
  187. Raifman J, Moscoe E, Austin SB, McConnell M (April 2017). "Difference-in-Differences Analysis of the Association Between State Same-Sex Marriage Policies and Adolescent Suicide Attempts". JAMA Pediatrics. 171 (4): 350–356. doi:10.1001/jamapediatrics.2016.4529. PMC   5848493 . PMID   28241285 . Retrieved 2024-04-28.
  188. "Movement Advancement Project | Health Care / Bans on Best Practice Medical Care for Transgender Youth". www.lgbtmap.org. Retrieved 2024-04-01.
  189. "Medical Organization Statements on Transgender Health Care - Trans Health Project". transhealthproject.org. Retrieved 2024-04-28.