Domestic violence in same-sex relationships

Last updated

The purple ribbon promotes awareness of domestic violence. USMC-07144.jpg
The purple ribbon promotes awareness of domestic violence.

Domestic violence in same-sex relationships or intragender violence [1] is a pattern of violence or abuse that occurs within same-sex relationships. Domestic violence is an issue that affects people of any sexuality, but there are issues that affect victims of same-sex domestic violence specifically. [2] These issues include homophobia, internalized homophobia, HIV and AIDS stigma, STD risk and other health issues, lack of legal support, and the violence they face being considered less serious than heterosexual domestic violence. [3] [4] [5] [6] [7] [8] [9] [10] [11] [12] Moreover, the issue of domestic violence in same-sex relationships has not been studied as comprehensively as domestic violence in heterosexual relationships. [13] However, there are legal changes being made to help victims of domestic violence in same-sex relationships, as well as organizations that cater specifically to victims of domestic violence in same-sex relationships. [14] [15] [16]

Contents

Prevalence

General

The Encyclopedia of Victimology and Crime Prevention states, "For several methodological reasons – nonrandom sampling procedures and self-selection factors, among others – it is not possible to assess the extent of same-sex domestic violence. Studies on abuse between gay male or lesbian partners usually rely on small convenience samples such as lesbian or gay male members of an association." [17] [18] An article from the Journal of Family Violence also cites underreporting, difficulty distinguishing between perpetrators and victims, the lack of a clear definition of partner violence, and difficulty gathering representative samples of gay men and lesbians as further reasons why finding the true prevalence rate of same-sex intimate partner violence is challenging. [19]

Gay men

According to a 2018 academic review, 26% of homosexual men reported experiencing intimate partner violence in their lifetime, compared to 29% of heterosexual men. [20]

Among male same-sex couples, socioeconomic status, attachment orientation, HIV status, and public outness, and internalized homophobia show a relationship with intimate partner violence in gay men. [21] [22]

Lesbian

The CDC also stated that 43.8% of lesbian women reported experiencing physical violence, stalking, or rape by their partners. The study notes that, out of those 43.8%, two thirds (67.4%) reported exclusively female perpetrators. The other third reported at least one perpetrator being male, however the study made no distinction between victims who experienced violence from male perpetrators only and those who reported both male and female perpetrators. Similarly, 61.1% of bisexual women reported physical violence, stalking, or rape by their partners in the same study with 89.5% reporting at least one perpetrator being male. In contrast, 35% of heterosexual women reported having been victim of intimate partner violence, with 98.7% of them reporting male perpetrators exclusively. [23]

Literature on intimate partner violence (IPV) among same-gender female couples; researchers found that internalized homophobia and discrimination were correlated with IPV. [24] In addition, in research done on psychological aggression of lesbian relationships, researchers found that internalized homophobia and social constraints in talking with friends about sexual identity issues showed correlation with IPV. [25]

Bisexual

Although bisexual people may be in relationships with people of any gender, they are often victims of domestic violence. The CDC reported that 61% of bisexual women said they experienced physical violence, stalking, or rape by their partners. For men in the same study, 37% reported having experienced similar violence. [23]

For both men and women, the percentage of bisexual people who have experienced domestic violence is higher than either gay men or lesbians. The high rate of domestic violence faced by bisexual people may be in part because of the specific challenges bisexual people face in receiving help, as bisexuality is often misunderstood, even by those who administer domestic violence help professionally. [9]

Influences and factors

Members of same-sex relationships who face domestic violence often have issues accessing legal recourse, as domestic violence laws are often drafted in such a way as to only include different sex partnerships. [4] Some are worried about being involved in the legal system because they are afraid they will be mistreated or dismissed due to their sexual orientation. [14] Although often the abuser can still be arrested or tried for assault or similar crimes, not classifying the crime as domestic may change how it is dealt with in the court system and change how the victim is treated. Also, studies have shown that law enforcement officers do not treat domestic violence in same-sex relationships as seriously as domestic violence in heterosexual relationships. [10]

Victims of domestic violence in same sex relationships do have legal rights afforded to them in some U.S. states, whether or not they are married to their partner, although the requirements and protections vary by state. [14] Some of these rights include having a civil protection order or restraining order placed on the abuser to keep them from stalking or harassing the victim.

Some cities and states in the U.S. are working to improve the legal situation for LGBT victims of domestic violence, through policy change and police training. [14] In Washington D.C. the city has created an LGBT unit of their police department to combat homophobic violence and to deal with violence against transgender people by professionals who are also members of the LGBT community. [15] [26]

HIV/AIDS

People carry a banner promoting the end of HIV stigma at a Pride Parade. Minnesota AIDS Project - HIV Stigma Stops Here - Twin Cities Pride Parade (9180874836).jpg
People carry a banner promoting the end of HIV stigma at a Pride Parade.

HIV/AIDS may create additional problems for those in violent relationships, financially, emotionally, and health wise, whether it is the perpetrator or the victim who is living with HIV or AIDS. [27]

Those living with HIV are often financially dependent on their partners, making it more difficult to leave abusive relationships. [5] If it is the victim who has HIV or AIDS the abuser may take control of their finances in order to have even more control over their life. [27] This issue is compounded by the fact that those living with HIV or AIDS may often become too sick to work and support themselves, and that even when they are able to work they often face discrimination in the workplace or in the hiring process, even though this is technically illegal under the Americans with Disabilities Act. [28]

Abusers may use emotional tactics to exert control over their partners, whether it is them or the victim who has HIV or AIDS. [27] Some abusive partners may threaten to reveal their partner's positive HIV status to others as a form of control, as there is a stigma surrounding HIV and AIDS that could affect a victim's life. [14] If it is the abuser who has HIV or AIDS, the victim may fear that leaving someone who is sick makes them seem shallow, uncaring, or discriminatory, or the abuser may insinuate that if their partner leaves the relationship the abuser will become sicker as a result. [27] Oppositionally, if it is the victim who has HIV or AIDS, the abuser may imply that the victim will be unable to find another partner due to their positive HIV status or that they will die alone. The abuser may also claim that it is the victim's fault that the abuser has HIV or AIDS, essentially emotionally blackmailing them to stay in the relationship.

There are many health related ways that HIV or AIDS can affect domestic violence in same-sex relationships. [27] Some perpetrators of domestic violence purposefully try to transmit STDs to their partner or to transmit their partner's STD to themselves, as a tactic to control their partner. Additionally, many people in same-sex relationships who experienced domestic violence experienced violence specifically because they had asked their partners to use condoms or other prophylactics, which are known to limit the spread of HIV. [6] [29] In conjunction with this, abusers may tamper with their partner's pre-exposure prophylaxis medications that prevent the spread of HIV, or may use the social stigma surrounding the use of pre-exposure prophylaxis to convince their partner not to use it. [27] [30] [31] The abuser may also tamper with their partner's or their own HIV medication, or keep their partner from receiving health care in other ways. [27] Furthermore, those with HIV or AIDS may be more affected by physical violence than those who are healthy, as their immune systems are weak and physical injuries will be harder to recover from. Those living with HIV or AIDS may also be more affected by emotional trauma for the same reason.

Homophobia

Homophobia plays a role in causing domestic violence in same-sex relationships as well as being a systemic issue as to why victims of same-sex domestic violence lack access to resources. [2] [9]

One way this occurs is through the fear of being "outed", as abusers may use this fear of being outed to control their partners or an abuser may use the fact that they are not out to limit their partner's exposure to other LGBT people who would recognize that their relationship is unhealthy. [2] [14] [16] An article from the journal Violence and Victims suggests that "outness" may represent greater power in one of the partners, which can lead to an unequal power dynamic in the relationship. [32] This threat of disclosure can be another barrier for victims of intimate partner violence to face in order to leave abusive relationships, report abuse, and seek resources or support. [33]

Another way homophobia plays a role in domestic violence is that people in same-sex relationships may feel that they have a duty to represent the LGBT community in a positive manner, and that if their relationship is abusive it is proof that homosexuality is inherently wrong, immoral, or otherwise flawed. [2] Further, the abuser may frame the abuse as justified because of the victim's sexual orientation, or imply that no one will help the victim because of their sexual orientation. [14] [16]

On a systematic level, many resources offered to victims of domestic violence are not offered to victims of domestic violence in same-sex relationships. This refusal to help victims of same-sex domestic violence victims occurs both by private domestic violence help centers and by law enforcement, who may not treat same-sex domestic violence as seriously as domestic violence in heterosexual relationships. [10]

As to internalized homophobia, victims may feel like they deserve it [34] or if they are the more "masculine" partner they may be the one blamed for the violence. Internalized homophobia can also lead individuals to have low self esteem and feel shame about their sexual orientation. A study from the journal Violence and Victims found that higher levels of internalized homophobia in gay men predicted an increased likelihood of perpetrating physical aggression. [32]

Gendered expectations

Historically, domestic violence was viewed by many feminists as "a manifestation of patriarchal power". [3] This definition saw domestic violence as a phenomenon acted out by men onto women, therefore leaving out male victims of domestic violence and victims of domestic violence in same-sex relationships. Some abusers even capitalize on the idea that domestic violence cannot occur in same-sex relationships to convince their partner that the abuse is normal or non-abusive. [27]

One idea that persists and is harmful to lesbians, is that sexual assault is less serious or aggressive when perpetrated by women. [2] However, being sexually assaulted can be traumatic to victims regardless of the gender of the perpetrator. Similarly, women stalking other women or men seem as less threatening than the same actions being perpetrated by men, so lesbian victims of stalking may be ignored by law enforcement and other individuals. [3] Part of this problem that specifically impacts lesbians is that lesbians are assumed to have perfect relationships specifically because there is no man involved in the situation. This idea of a "lesbian utopia" makes it more difficult for lesbians to report domestic violence, because often people do not believe it can be true. [2]

Gay men may feel that being battered is a threat to their masculinity, and thus are hesitant to report domestic violence. [2] Some abusers may frame the abuse as simply an "expression of masculinity", which normalizes the physical violence. [16]

Data collection issues

There are several problems with data collection about domestic violence in same-sex relationships, including lack of reporting, biased sampling, and lack of interest in studying same-sex domestic violence. [13] For example, if samples are taken at a center that caters to LGBT individuals, the results may be artificially high, as those who use these services may also be those in need of help, or artificially low, as abusers often limit their partner's exposure to others, especially those who may recognize their relationship as abusive. [2] [13] [16] [27]

Organizations

National Coalition of Anti-Violence Programs (AVP)

The National Coalition of Anti-Violence Programs (AVP) is an organization which "works to prevent, respond to, and end all forms of violence against and within LGBTQ communities." [35] This organization has member organization in 26 U.S. states, Washington, D.C., and Canada, which help connect people to resources when they have been abused in a same-sex relationship, been sexually assaulted, or been a victim of a homophobic hate crime. [14] [36]

Community United Against Violence (CUAV)

CUAV is an organization based in San Francisco that has a broad mission of seeking to track anti-LGBT violence and offer support to those affected by it. [37] They offer support groups and counselling for those who are victims of same-sex domestic violence. [38]

New York State Lesbian, Gay, Bisexual, Transgender & Queer Intimate Partner Violence Network ("The Network")

"The Network" seeks to advocate for victims of same-sex domestic violence within the state of New York, and hope that through supporting victims of same-sex domestic violence in the social and political realm that they will then have greater access to resources that victims of domestic violence may need. [39]

Montrose Center

The Montrose Center is an organization in Houston, Texas, that began as a counselling center for LGBT individuals. [40] The Montrose Center offers many services to LGBT individuals, including servicing victims of domestic violence by finding them housing and providing counselling. [41] [42] Although there are other domestic violence shelters in the Houston area, the Montrose Center feels like they can cater better to men, transgender individuals, and lesbian victims of domestic violence.

See also

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Biphobia</span> Aversion to bisexual people

Biphobia is aversion toward bisexuality or people who are identified or perceived as being bisexual. Similarly to homophobia, it refers to hatred and prejudice specifically against those identified or perceived as being in the bisexual community. It can take the form of denial that bisexuality is a genuine sexual orientation, or of negative stereotypes about people who are bisexual. Other forms of biphobia include bisexual erasure.

Heterosexism is a system of attitudes, bias, and discrimination in favor of heterosexuality and heterosexual relationships. According to Elizabeth Cramer, it can include the belief that all people are or should be heterosexual and that heterosexual relationships are the only norm and therefore superior.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">LGBT rights in Belarus</span>

Lesbian, gay, bisexual, and transgender (LGBT) people in Belarus face significant challenges not experienced by non-LGBT residents. Although same-sex sexual activity is legal in Belarus, gay and lesbian rights in the country are otherwise severely limited and homosexuality remains highly stigmatized in Belarusian society. Households headed by same-sex couples are not eligible for the same legal protections available to opposite-sex couples. Belarus provides no anti-discrimination protections for LGBT people, nor does it prohibit hate crimes based on sexual orientation and gender identity. Many Belarusian people believe that homosexuality is a psychiatric illness, and many LGBT persons in Belarus tend to hide their sexual orientation in public. Those who are "out" face harassment, violence and physical abuse.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">LGBT rights in Burkina Faso</span>

Lesbian, gay, bisexual, and transgender (LGBT) people in Burkina Faso face legal issues not experienced by non-LGBT citizens. Although same-sex sexual acts are legal for both men and women in Burkina Faso, there is no legal recognition of same-sex marriage or adoption rights.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">LGBT rights in Afghanistan</span>

Lesbian, gay, bisexual, and transgender (LGBT) people in the Islamic Emirate of Afghanistan face severe challenges not experienced by non-LGBT residents. Afghan members of the LGBT community are forced to keep their gender identity and sexual orientation secret, in fear of violence and the death penalty. The religious nature of the country has limited any opportunity for public discussion, with any mention of homosexuality and related terms deemed taboo.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">LGBT stereotypes</span> Stereotypes around LGBTQ people and communities

LGBT stereotypes are stereotypes about lesbian, gay, bisexual and transgender (LGBT) people are based on their sexual orientations, gender identities, or gender expressions. Stereotypical perceptions may be acquired through interactions with parents, teachers, peers and mass media, or, more generally, through a lack of firsthand familiarity, resulting in an increased reliance on generalizations.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Homophobia</span> Negative attitudes and discrimination toward homosexuality and LGBT people

Homophobia encompasses a range of negative attitudes and feelings toward homosexuality or people who identify or are perceived as being lesbian, gay or bisexual. It has been defined as contempt, prejudice, aversion, hatred or antipathy, may be based on irrational fear and may sometimes be related to religious beliefs.

Women who have sex with women (WSW) are women who engage in sexual activities with other women, whether they identify themselves as lesbian, bisexual, or heterosexual, or dispense with sexual identification altogether. The term WSW is often used in medical literature to describe such women as a group for clinical study, without needing to consider sexual self-identity.

Domestic violence occurs across the world, in various cultures, and affects people across society, at all levels of economic status; however, indicators of lower socioeconomic status have been shown to be risk factors for higher levels of domestic violence in several studies. In the United States, according to the Bureau of Justice Statistics in 1995, women reported a six times greater rate of intimate partner violence than men. However, studies have found that men are much less likely to report victimization in these situations.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Lesbophobia</span> Irrational fear of, and aversion to, lesbians

Lesbophobia comprises various forms of prejudice and negativity towards lesbians as individuals, as couples, as a social group, or lesbianism in general. Based on the categories of sex, sexual orientation, identity, and gender expression, this negativity encompasses prejudice, discrimination, hatred, and abuse; with attitudes and feelings ranging from disdain to hostility. Lesbophobia is misogyny that intersects with homophobia, and vice versa. It is analogous to gayphobia.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">LGBT rights in El Salvador</span>

Lesbian, gay, bisexual, transgender, intersex, non-binary and otherwise queer, non-cisgender, non-heterosexual citizens of El Salvador face considerable legal and social challenges not experienced by fellow heterosexual, cisgender Salvadorans. While same-sex sexual activity between all genders is legal in the country, same-sex marriage is not recognized; thus, same-sex couples—and households headed by same-sex couples—are not eligible for the same legal benefits provided to heterosexual married couples.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Domestic violence</span> Abuse of members of the same household

Domestic violence is violence or other abuse that occurs in a domestic setting, such as in a marriage or cohabitation. Domestic violence is often used as a synonym for intimate partner violence, which is committed by one of the people in an intimate relationship against the other person, and can take place in relationships or between former spouses or partners. In its broadest sense, domestic violence also involves violence against children, parents, or the elderly. It can assume multiple forms, including physical, verbal, emotional, economic, religious, reproductive, financial abuse, or sexual abuse. It can range from subtle, coercive forms to marital rape and other violent physical abuse, such as choking, beating, female genital mutilation, and acid throwing that may result in disfigurement or death, and includes the use of technology to harass, control, monitor, stalk or hack. Domestic murder includes stoning, bride burning, honor killing, and dowry death, which sometimes involves non-cohabitating family members. In 2015, the United Kingdom's Home Office widened the definition of domestic violence to include coercive control.

Various topics in medicine relate particularly to the health of lesbian, gay, bisexual, transgender, queer, intersex and asexual (LGBTQIA) individuals as well as other sexual and gender minorities. According to the US National LGBTQIA+ Health Education Center, these areas include sexual and reproductive health, mental health, substance use disorders, HIV/AIDS, HIV-related cancers, intimate partner violence, issues surrounding marriage and family recognition, breast and cervical cancer, inequities in healthcare and access to care. In medicine, various nomenclature, including variants of the acronym LGBTQIA+, are used as an umbrella term to refer to individuals who are non-heterosexual, non-heteroromantic, or non-cis gendered. Specific groups within this community have their own distinct health concerns, however are often grouped together in research and discussions. This is primarily because these sexual and gender minorities groups share the effects of stigmatization based on their gender identity or expression, and/or sexual orientation or affection orientation. Furthermore, there are subpopulations among LGBTQIA+ groups based on factors such as race, ethnicity, socioeconomic status, geographic location, and age, all of which can impact healthcare outcomes.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">LGBT rights in Sierra Leone</span>

Lesbian, gay, bisexual, and transgender (LGBT) people in Sierra Leone face legal challenges not experienced by non-LGBT residents. Male same-sex sexual activity is illegal in Sierra Leone and carries a possible penalty of life imprisonment, although this law is seldom enforced.

Corrective rape, also called curative rape or homophobic rape, is a hate crime in which somebody is raped because of their perceived sexual orientation. The common intended consequence of the rape, as claimed by the perpetrator, is to turn the person heterosexual.

Homosexuality, as a phenomenon and as a behavior, has existed throughout all eras in human societies.

Domestic violence within lesbian relationships is the pattern of violent and coercive behavior in a female same-sex relationship wherein a lesbian or other non-heterosexual woman seeks to control the thoughts, beliefs, or conduct of her female intimate partner. In the case of multiple forms of domestic partner abuse, it is also referred to as lesbian battering.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Outline of LGBT topics</span> Overview of and topical guide to LGBT topics

The following outline offers an overview and guide to LGBT topics.

Homophobia in ethnic minority communities is any negative prejudice or form of discrimination in ethnic minority communities in the UK and USA towards people who identify as–or are perceived as being–lesbian, gay, bisexual or transgender (LGBT), known as homophobia. This may be expressed as antipathy, contempt, prejudice, aversion, hatred, irrational fear, and is sometimes related to religious beliefs. A 2006 study by the Joseph Rowntree Foundation in the UK found that while religion can have a positive function in many LGB Black and Minority Ethnic (BME) communities, it can also play a role in supporting homophobia.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Sexual assault of LGBT persons</span>

Sexual assault of LGBT people, also known as sexual and gender minorities (SGM), is a form of violence that occurs within the LGBT community. While sexual assault and other forms of interpersonal violence can occur in all forms of relationships, it is found that sexual minorities experience it at rates that are equal to or higher than their heterosexual counterparts. There is a lack of research on this specific problem for the LGBT population as a whole, but there does exist a substantial amount of research on college LGBT students who have experienced sexual assault and sexual harassment.

References

  1. ↑ Rivero Santamarina, Diana; Meso Ayerdi, Koldobika; Martínez Odriozola, Lucia (2015). "Intragender violence, a new challenge for correct news coverage". Contemporanea. 13 (3): 636-658.
  2. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 Duke, Alysondra; Davidson, Meghan M. (2009) [2009]. "Same-sex intimate partner violence: Lesbian, gay, and bisexual affirmative outreach and advocacy". Journal of Aggression, Maltreatment & Trauma. 18 (8): 795–816. doi:10.1080/10926770903291787. S2CID   144800211.
  3. 1 2 3 Anderson, Kristin L. "Theorizing gender in intimate partner violence research." Sex roles 52, no. 11-12 (2005): 853-865.
  4. 1 2 Barnes, Patricia G. "'It's Just a Quarrel': Some states offer no domestic violence protection to gays." ABA Journal 84, no. 2 (1998): 24-25.
  5. 1 2 Craft, Shonda M.; Serovich, Julianne M. (2005). "Family-of-origin factors and partner violence in the intimate relationships of gay men who are HIV positive". Journal of Interpersonal Violence. 20 (7): 777–791. doi:10.1177/0886260505277101. PMC   1255964 . PMID   15914700.
  6. 1 2 Heintz, Adam Jackson; Melendez, Rita M. (2006). "Intimate partner violence and HIV/STD risk among lesbian, gay, bisexual, and transgender individuals". Journal of Interpersonal Violence. 21 (2): 193–208. doi:10.1177/0886260505282104. PMID   16368761. S2CID   35404907.
  7. ↑ Houston, Eric; McKirnan, David J. (2007). "Intimate partner abuse among gay and bisexual men: risk correlates and health outcomes". Journal of Urban Health. 84 (5): 681–690. doi:10.1007/s11524-007-9188-0. PMC   2231846 . PMID   17610158.
  8. ↑ Helfrich, Christine A., and Emily K. Simpson. "Improving services for lesbian clients: What do domestic violence agencies need to do?." Health care for women international 27, no. 4 (2006): 344-361.
  9. 1 2 3 McKenry, Patrick C.; Serovich, Julianne M.; Mason, Tina L.; Mosack, Katie (2006). "Perpetration of Gay and Lesbian Partner Violence: A Disempowerment Perspective". Journal of Family Violence. 21 (4): 233–243. doi:10.1007/s10896-006-9020-8. S2CID   46111427.
  10. 1 2 3 Pattavina, April; Hirschel, David; Buzawa, Eve; Faggiani, Don; Bentley, Helen (2007). "A comparison of the police response to heterosexual versus same-sex intimate partner violence". Violence Against Women. 13 (4): 374–394. doi:10.1177/1077801207299206. PMID   17420516. S2CID   22181292.
  11. ↑ Poorman, Paula B., Eric P. Seelau, and Sheila M. Seelau. "Perceptions of domestic abuse in same-sex relationships and implications for criminal justice and mental health responses." Violence and Victims 18, no. 6 (2003): 659-669.
  12. ↑ Sorenson, Susan B.; Thomas Kristie, A. (2009). "Views of Intimate Partner Violence in Same- and Opposite-Sex Relationships". Journal of Marriage and Family. 71 (2): 337–52. doi:10.1111/j.1741-3737.2009.00602.x. JSTOR   40262883.
  13. 1 2 3 Murray, Christine E.; Mobley, A. Keith (2009). "Empirical research about same-sex intimate partner violence: A methodological review" (PDF). Journal of Homosexuality. 56 (3): 361–386. doi:10.1080/00918360902728848. PMID   19319742. S2CID   1376844.
  14. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 "What Rights Do I Have As An LGBT Victim of Domestic Violence?" (PDF). www.americanbar.org. American Bar Association. Retrieved 2016-10-26.
  15. 1 2 "Lesbian, Gay, Bisexual and Transgender Liaison Unit (LGBTLU) | mpdc". mpdc.dc.gov. Retrieved 2016-10-26.
  16. 1 2 3 4 5 "The National Domestic Violence Hotline | LGBTQ Abuse". www.thehotline.org. Retrieved 2016-10-26.
  17. ↑ Bonnie S. Fisher; Steven P. Lab (2010). Encyclopedia of Gender and Society. Vol. 1. SAGE. p. 312. ISBN   978-1-4129-6047-2 . Retrieved August 19, 2014.
  18. ↑ Fisher, Bonnie; Lab, Steven (2010). Encyclopedia of Victimology and Crime Prevention. Thousand Oaks, California: SAGE. doi:10.4135/9781412979993. ISBN   978-1-4129-6047-2.
  19. ↑ Carvalho, Amana F.; Lewis, Robin J.; Derlega, Valerian J.; Winstead, Barbara A.; Viggiano, Claudia (2011-10-01). "Internalized Sexual Minority Stressors and Same-Sex Intimate Partner Violence". Journal of Family Violence. 26 (7): 501–509. doi:10.1007/s10896-011-9384-2. ISSN   1573-2851. S2CID   21930863.
  20. ↑ Rollè, Luca; Giardina, Giulia; Caldarera, Angela M.; Gerino, Eva; Brustia, Piera (2018). "When Intimate Partner Violence Meets Same Sex Couples: A Review of Same Sex Intimate Partner Violence". Frontiers in Psychology. 9: 1506. doi: 10.3389/fpsyg.2018.01506 . ISSN   1664-1078. PMC   6113571 . PMID   30186202.
  21. ↑ Bartholomew, Kim; Regan, Katherine V.; Oram, Doug; White, Monica A. (2008). "Correlates of Partner Abuse in Male Same-Sex Relationships". Violence and Victims. 23 (3): 344–360. doi:10.1891/0886-6708.23.3.344. PMID   18624099. S2CID   15200759.
  22. ↑ Stiles-Shields, C; Carroll, RA (2015). "Same-Sex Domestic Violence: Prevalence, Unique Aspects, and Clinical Implications". Journal of Sex & Marital Therapy. 41 (6): 636–48. doi:10.1080/0092623X.2014.958792. PMID   25189218. S2CID   31197175.
  23. 1 2 Walters, Mikel L., Jieru Chen, and Matthew J. Breiding. "The National Intimate Partner and Sexual Violence Survey (NISVS): 2010 findings on victimization by sexual orientation." Atlanta, GA: National Center for Injury Prevention and Control, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention 648, no. 73 (2013): 6.
  24. ↑ Balsam, Kimberly F.; Szymanski, Dawn M. (2005). "Relationship Quality and Domestic Violence in Women's Same-Sex Relationships: The Role of Minority Stress". Psychology of Women Quarterly. 29 (3): 258–269. doi:10.1111/j.1471-6402.2005.00220.x. S2CID   144366701.
  25. ↑ Lewis, Robin J.; Milletich, Robert J.; Derlega, Valerian J.; Padilla, Miguel A. (2014). "Sexual Minority Stressors and Psychological Aggression in Lesbian Women's Intimate Relationships". Psychology of Women Quarterly. 38 (4): 535–550. doi:10.1177/0361684313517866. S2CID   144970235.
  26. ↑ "For D.C.'s LGBT Community, A Police Liaison Who Can Relate". NPR.org. Retrieved 2016-10-26.
  27. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 "NCAVP :: Issues :: Domestic Violence". www.ncavp.org. Retrieved 2016-10-26.
  28. ↑ Campaign, Human Rights. "HIV & AIDS and Employment Discrimination | Human Rights Campaign". Human Rights Campaign. Retrieved 2016-10-26.
  29. ↑ "Men who have sex with men, HIV and AIDS | AVERT". www.avert.org. 2015-07-20. Retrieved 2016-10-26.
  30. ↑ Calabrese, Sarah K.; Underhill, Kristen (2016-10-26). "How Stigma Surrounding the Use of HIV Preexposure Prophylaxis Undermines Prevention and Pleasure: A Call to Destigmatize "Truvada Whores"". American Journal of Public Health. 105 (10): 1960–1964. doi:10.2105/AJPH.2015.302816. ISSN   0090-0036. PMC   4566537 . PMID   26270298.
  31. ↑ Dean, Tim (2015). "Mediated Intimacies: Raw Sex, Truvada, & the Biopolitics of Chemoprophylaxis". Sexualities. 18 (1–2) (published February 2015): 224–246. doi:10.1177/1363460715569137. S2CID   144847629.
  32. 1 2 Kelley, Michelle L.; Milletich, Robert J.; Lewis, Robin J.; Winstead, Barbara A.; Barraco, Cathy L.; Padilla, Miguel A.; Lynn, Courtney (2014). "Predictors of Perpetration of Men's Same-Sex Partner Violence". Violence and Victims. 29 (5): 784–796. doi:10.1891/0886-6708.VV-D-13-00096. ISSN   0886-6708. PMID   25905128. S2CID   34000892.
  33. ↑ Carvalho, Amana F.; Lewis, Robin J.; Derlega, Valerian J.; Winstead, Barbara A.; Viggiano, Claudia (October 2011). "Internalized Sexual Minority Stressors and Same-Sex Intimate Partner Violence". Journal of Family Violence. 26 (7): 501–509. doi:10.1007/s10896-011-9384-2. ISSN   0885-7482. S2CID   21930863.
  34. ↑ "Is violence more common in same-sex relationships?". BBC News. 2014-11-18. Retrieved 2020-12-10.
  35. ↑ Administrator. "National Coalition of Anti-Violence Programs - AVP: The Anti-Violence Project". www.avp.org. Archived from the original on 2016-10-25. Retrieved 2016-10-26.
  36. ↑ Nameri, Heysha. "NCAVP Member Directory - AVP: The Anti-Violence Project". www.avp.org. Archived from the original on 2016-11-04. Retrieved 2016-10-26.
  37. ↑ Jenness, Valerie; Broad, Kendal (1994). "Antiviolence activism and the (in) visibility of gender in the gay/lesbian and women's movements". Gender & Society. 8 (3): 402–423. doi:10.1177/089124394008003007. S2CID   144954480.
  38. ↑ "CUAV Programs". cuav.org. Retrieved 2016-10-18.
  39. ↑ "NEW YORK STATE LESBIAN, GAY, BISEXUAL, TRANSGENDER & QUEER INTIMATE PARTNER VIOLENCE NETWORK". avp.org. Archived from the original on 2016-10-12. Retrieved 2016-10-18.
  40. ↑ Rufca, Sarah (2013-10-23). "New name, new look, same mission for Montrose Center". chron.com. The Houston Chronicle. Retrieved 2016-10-19.
  41. ↑ "Anti-Violence Program". montrosecenter.org. Archived from the original on 2016-10-20. Retrieved 2016-10-19.
  42. ↑ Tasha Amezcua et al. (2011). Lesbian, Gay, Bisexual, Transgender, Queer and HIV-affected Intimate Partner Violence 2011. New York City, New York. National Coalition of Anti-Violence Programs.
This page is based on this Wikipedia article
Text is available under the CC BY-SA 4.0 license; additional terms may apply.
Images, videos and audio are available under their respective licenses.