Domestic violence in Kenya

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Domestic violence in Kenya constitutes any harmful behavior against a family member or partner, including rape, assault, physical abuse, and forced prostitution. [1] Domestic violence in Kenya reflects worldwide statistics in that women are the overwhelming majority of victims. Over 40% of married women in Kenya have reported being victims of either domestic violence or sexual abuse. [2] Worldwide, over 30% of "ever-partnered women" aged 15 and older have experienced physical or sexual partner violence. [3] The distinct factors and causes of this high percentage have often not been studied due to lack of data. [2]

Contents

Factors such as low levels of education, religion, and socioeconomic status all are relevant when looking at the causes of domestic violence in Kenya. [2] Sexual coercion is prevalent in Kenya and often leads to abuse as well. [4] Pregnant women are more likely to be victims of domestic abuse because they are more likely to be in a relationship. [5] Pregnant women are often also economically or socially vulnerable, putting them at a higher risk for domestic violence due to the patriarchal dominance. [5] Unwanted pregnancies are often seen as the fault of the woman, leading to more abuse. [5] The gender roles in Kenya contribute to the acceptance of domestic abuse. [6]

Domestic violence also contributes to negative mental and physical health effects. [7] Negative outcomes of domestic violence include pregnancy loss, complications, hypertension, physical injuries, and stress. In recent cases deaths have been reported. [5] In addition, victims of domestic violence are more likely to contract HIV/AIDS and other sexually transmitted diseases. [8] Responses to domestic violence in Kenya include legal mandates [9] and programs set in place by social organizations. [8] Underreporting of domestic violence in developing countries is due to many reasons, including shame, financial barriers, lack of awareness access to services, and distrust of healthcare workers. [3]

Causes

Sexual coercion

In Kenya, along with in other parts of Africa, sexual coercion among adolescents is common. [4] Sexual coercion is defined as any experience in which a person is "compelled to have sex against his or her will." [4] In a research survey in Kenya in 2004, 11% of men and 21% of women aged 10–24 had experienced sexual coercion in their lifetime. [4] Women reported that intimate partner coercion was the most common form, with coercion by acquaintances following. Only 23% of these women and 22% of these men told a close family member or friend about the experience. [4]

In 2014, the Kenya Demographic and Health Survey issued a report stating about 44 per cent of Kenyan women had encountered physical abuse by men since they were a Juvenile. [10]

Gender inequality

Women with low levels of education are also often of low socioeconomic status and must depend financially on a male partner, often leading to abuse. [6] Poor women also depend on men for household maintenance. [6] In some relationships, men prevent their wives from being employed, keeping them trapped within both their physical home and within the man's control. [11] These women remain silent in the face of abuse. [6]

Women transgressing gender norms often also leads to abuse. [6] If a woman does not act with respect and obedience, or does not complete her chores, she is "disciplined" by her partner. [6] In addition, men are also threatened by women making independent decisions. If a couple has agreed upon a decision and the woman goes against it, it is cause for violence. [6] If a woman questions the financial choices of a man, or makes him feel as if he is not providing for the family well, the man often uses violence in his anger. [6]

In a study with a focus group of male and female nurses in Africa showed that male infidelity is a commonly accepted situation, and is even encouraged, whereas female infidelity is seen as behavior that merits physical abuse. [12] In addition, because a man's right to infidelity is accepted so widely, a female's refusal to allow this behavior also was seen as warranting abuse. [12]

In the men's focus group, domestic violence against women was also viewed as a way to forgive a woman's "transgressions." [12] The studies also found that when surveyed alone, women claimed that the violence was a form of love. [12] It is widely accepted that after a husband's "punishment" or the abuse, the woman regains dignity in the household and is the receiver of love from her partner. [12]

Education

Lack of Education in Kenya also contributes to the prevalence of abuse. [11] In the 2003 "Demographic & Health Surveys", a clear link was made between the respondent's level of education and the percentage of people who believe that "it is justified for a man to hit his wife, if she argues with him." [11] The survey was done with both men and women, and the general trend for both showed that as years in education of the respondent increased, fewer people felt domestic violence was justified. [11] Another trend was shown when the respondent's education was plotted against the percentage of people who agreed that "a man is justified in hitting his wife if she goes out without telling him." [11] As the level of education increased, the mean percentage who felt the above claim was justified, decreased. [11]

In a similar survey, the average education of both the respondent and her mother were taken into account. [11] The evidence showed that as the respondent's mother's education increased, the percentage of respondents who felt that domestic violence was justified in certain situations decreased almost linearly. [11] The article that explains these surveys concludes that this link may be because mothers who are more educated raise their children to reject domestic violence. [11]

Mental and physical health

Domestic violence also affects mental health. A study by the World Health Organization in 2008 found that women who have reported being a victim of partner violence also reported a higher likelihood of having feelings of distress, suicidal thoughts, and suicidal attempts than women who had not experienced violence. [7] Additionally, drug and alcohol abuse, depression and anxiety are all increased in domestic violence victims. [7] Specifically among women, domestic violence decreases self worth, security, and dignity. [13] An interview based study in 1998 showed that women who had reported experiencing violence had "significantly more diagnosis of phobias than women who reported no abuse." [14] Out of the women in the study who tested positive for lifetime PTSD related to any stressful event in their life, 30.6% reported adult abuse. [14]

A study showed that the strongest risk factor for domestic violence was being physically abused as a child. [15] Many victims of domestic violence may also be perpetrators. [15] This study also found a correlation between intimate partner violence (IPV) and the development of chronic illnesses (both mental and physical) in both men and women. [15] Other physical outcomes of domestic violence include a higher likelihood of developing irritable bowel syndrome, gastrointestinal disorders, and chronic pelvic pain. [16] Complications of pregnancy, risk of sexually transmitted infections, and risk of unwanted pregnancies also increase as a result of domestic violence. [16] Coker's study also found that if intimate partner violence is exposed early, interventions can be put into place to minimize the long term negative health effects. [15]

Responses

Government

The scholar Patricia Kameri-Mbote wrote that the Constitution of Kenya states that men women and children have the right to "life, liberty, and security of the person and his/her protection from the law." [9] While the constitution provides both men and women protection from "inhuman treatment or torture," it does not explicitly provide protection from violence against women and girls. [9] The Kenyan Penal Code also has provisions that are used to protect against domestic violence. Under a section called "Sexual Offenses," three kinds of "rape" are prohibited against. [9] However, the language used in this provision has lent itself to many loopholes. [9] Under another section labeled "Defilement," it is written that extreme punishment will be used for men who rape women under the age of 14 or a girl that "was an idiot or imbecile." [9] For married women, protection from rape is almost nonexistent, especially if the marriage is considered valid under the law. [9] Due to the fact that Kenya does not have a minimum age for marriage, the issue of age for consent of sexual relationship is often unclear. [9]

In many countries, the law enforcement does not act in cases of domestic violence because the severity of the violence is undermined and seen as a "domestic quarrel." [17] As Lenore E. Walker writes in "Psychology and Domestic Violence Around the World," many believe that "an arrest and incarceration" is the most successful way to end the violence. [17] However, others are of the opinion that in situations where the man does not have good community relations or many social ties, intervention by law enforcement can actually increase violence. [17]

Social responses

Social efforts to reduce the domestic violence prevalence in Kenya include programs to increase gender based violence recovery programs. [8] In 2012, Rebecca Njuki et al. discussed how aid voucher programs are increasing with the goal of providing vouchers to victims for a specific health purpose. [8] In this system, vouchers are given to victims of abuse that can be used for medical examinations, counseling services, and links to support groups which often provide legal assistance and referrals to shelters. [8]

Women waiting for health services in the Great Rift Valley, Kenya COLLECTIE TROPENMUSEUM Vrouwen en kinderen in de wachtkamer van de kliniek van het Kneporos project TMnr 20014463.jpg
Women waiting for health services in the Great Rift Valley, Kenya

In 2002, a study showed that the healthcare system is the most efficient way to find victims of domestic violence. [12] However, research has shown that many healthcare professionals are not trained to identify signs of domestic violence. [12] In a study using focus groups of both male and female nurses and asked them what they deemed as domestic violence. [12] The males frequently described occurrences of violence as "discipline" or "punishment." [12] When victims are identified, they "have often been treated insensitively and had their abuse minimized or ignored, with healthcare workers tending to focus on physical injuries while subtly blaming women for their abuse." [12]

A program was implemented in 2013 to decrease domestic violence towards pregnant women. [18] This program was started in rural Kenya and provided clinical assistance, referrals, and emotional support to victims of domestic abuse. [18] A 40 hour training session was mandated for all clinicians, and community partners (religious, social, traditional) were educated on domestic violence and its effects. [18] Women were tested for HIV, educated in mother-to-child transmission interventions, and provided with transportation in case a referral was needed. [18] 134 women were studied during a 5 month period. [18] Results of this study showed that the community benefited greatly from this program, as victims knew where to go for medical assistance, perpetrators knew they would be held liable for their actions, and health workers became empowered and confident in their abilities to help victims. [18] A study by Ann L. Coker also concluded that specific screening for domestic violence should be implemented for all women, and that special attention should be given to screening for physical and sexual abuse. [15]

Related Research Articles

Psychological abuse, often called emotional abuse, is a form of abuse characterized by a person subjecting or exposing another person to a behavior that may result in psychological trauma, including anxiety, chronic depression, or post-traumatic stress disorder amongst other psychological problems.

The conflict tactics scale (CTS), created by Murray A. Straus in 1979, is used in the research of family violence." There are two versions of the CTS; the CTS2 and the CTSPC. As of 2005, the CTS has been used in about 600 peer reviewed scientific or scholarly papers, including longitudinal birth-cohort studies. National surveys conducted in the USA include two National Family Violence Surveys, the National Violence Against Women Survey (1998), which, according to Straus, used a "feminist version" of the CTS in order to minimize data on female perpetration of intimate partner violence (IPV), and the National Survey of Child and Adolescent Well-Being. A major international survey to use the CTS was the 2006 International Dating Violence Study, which investigated IPV amongst 13,601 college students across thirty-two different countries.

Intimate partner violence (IPV) is domestic violence by a current or former spouse or partner in an intimate relationship against the other spouse or partner. IPV can take a number of forms, including physical, verbal, emotional, economic and sexual abuse. The World Health Organization (WHO) defines IPV as "any behavior within an intimate relationship that causes physical, psychological or sexual harm to those in the relationship, including acts of physical aggression, sexual coercion, psychological abuse and controlling behaviors." IPV is sometimes referred to simply as battery, or as spouse or partner abuse.

Domestic violence occurs across the world, in various cultures, and affects people across society, at all levels of economic status; however, indicators of lower socioeconomic status have been shown to be risk factors for higher levels of domestic violence in several studies. In the United States, according to the Bureau of Justice Statistics in 1995, women reported a six times greater rate of intimate partner violence than men. However, studies have found that men are much less likely to report victimization in these situations.

Violence against women in Peru is defined as harassment or violence propagated against those who are born women. Intimate partner violence (IPV) is the most common form of gender-based violence that occurs though it can occur concurrently with sexual and emotional violence.

Intimate partner sexual violence (IPSV) deals with sexual violence within the context of domestic violence. Intimate partner sexual violence is defined by any unwanted sexual contact or activity by an intimate partner in order to control an individual through fear, threats, or violence. Women are the primary victims of this type of violence.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Domestic violence</span> Abuse of members of the same household

Domestic violence is violence or other abuse that occurs in a domestic setting, such as in a marriage or cohabitation. Domestic violence is often used as a synonym for intimate partner violence, which is committed by one of the people in an intimate relationship against the other person, and can take place in relationships or between former spouses or partners. In its broadest sense, domestic violence also involves violence against children, parents, or the elderly. It can assume multiple forms, including physical, verbal, emotional, economic, religious, reproductive, financial abuse, or sexual abuse. It can range from subtle, coercive forms to marital rape and other violent physical abuse, such as choking, beating, female genital mutilation, and acid throwing that may result in disfigurement or death, and includes the use of technology to harass, control, monitor, stalk or hack. Domestic murder includes stoning, bride burning, honor killing, and dowry death, which sometimes involves non-cohabitating family members. In 2015, the United Kingdom's Home Office widened the definition of domestic violence to include coercive control.

Pregnancy when coupled with domestic violence is a form of intimate partner violence (IPV) where health risks may be amplified. Abuse during pregnancy, whether physical, verbal or emotional, produces many adverse physical and psychological effects for both the mother and fetus. Domestic violence during pregnancy is categorized as abusive behavior towards a pregnant woman, where the pattern of abuse can often change in terms of severity and frequency of violence. Abuse may be a long-standing problem in a relationship that continues after a woman becomes pregnant or it may commence in pregnancy. Although female-to-male partner violence occurs in these settings, the overwhelming form of domestic violence is perpetrated by men against women. Pregnancy provides a unique opportunity for healthcare workers to screen women for domestic violence though a recent review found that the best way in which to do this is unclear. Reducing domestic violence in pregnancy should improve outcomes for mothers and babies though more good quality studies are needed to work out effective ways of screening pregnant women.

Domestic violence against men is violence or other physical abuse towards men in a domestic setting, such as in marriage or cohabitation. As with domestic violence against women, violence against men may constitute a crime, but laws vary between jurisdictions. Intimate partner violence (IPV) against men is generally less recognized by society than intimate partner violence against women, which can act as a further block to men reporting their situation.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Domestic violence in India</span>

Domestic violence in India includes any form of violence suffered by a person from a biological relative but typically is the violence suffered by a woman by male members of her family or relatives. Although Men also suffer Domestic violence, the law under IPC 498A specifically protects only women. Specifically only a woman can file a case of domestic violence. According to a National Family and Health Survey in 2005, total lifetime prevalence of domestic violence was 33.5% and 8.5% for sexual violence among women aged 15–49. A 2014 study in The Lancet reports that although the reported sexual violence rate in India is among the lowest in the world, the large population of India means that the violence affects 27.5 million women over their lifetimes. However, an opinion survey among experts carried out by the Thomson Reuters Foundation ranked India as the most dangerous country in the world for women.

Domestic violence in Pakistan is an endemic social and public health problem. According to a study carried out in 2009 by Human Rights Watch, it is estimated that between 10 and 20% of women in Pakistan have suffered some form of abuse. Women have reported attacks ranging from physical to psychological and sexual abuse from intimate partners. A survey carried out by the Thomson Reuters Foundation ranked Pakistan as the sixth most dangerous country for women while India ranked 1st as the most dangerous country for women. Given the very few women's shelters in the country, victims have limited ability to escape from violent situations.

Reproductive coercion is a collection of behaviors that interfere with decision-making related to reproductive health. These behaviors are meant to maintain power and control related to reproductive health by a current, former, or hopeful intimate or romantic partner, but they can also be perpetrated by parents or in-laws. Coercive behaviors infringe on individuals' reproductive rights and reduce their reproductive autonomy.

Violence against men are violent acts that are disproportionately or exclusively committed against men or boys. Men are over-represented as both victims and perpetrators of violence.

Domestic violence is prominent in Nigeria as in other parts of Africa. There is a deep cultural belief in Nigeria that it is socially acceptable to hit a woman as a disciplinary measure. Cases of Domestic violence are on the high and show no signs of reduction in Nigeria, regardless of age, tribe, religion, or even social status. The CLEEN Foundation reports 1 in every 3 respondents identified themselves as a victim of domestic violence. The survey also found a nationwide increase in domestic violence in the past 3 years from 21% in 2011 to 30% in 2013. A CLEEN Foundation's 2012 National Crime and Safety Survey demonstrated that 31% of the national sample confessed to being victims of domestic violence.

Domestic violence within lesbian relationships is the pattern of violent and coercive behavior in a female same-sex relationship wherein a lesbian or other non-heterosexual woman seeks to control the thoughts, beliefs, or conduct of her female intimate partner. In the case of multiple forms of domestic partner abuse, it is also referred to as lesbian battering.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Domestic violence in same-sex relationships</span>

Domestic violence in same-sex relationships or intragender violence is a pattern of violence or abuse that occurs within same-sex relationships. Domestic violence is an issue that affects people of any sexuality, but there are issues that affect victims of same-sex domestic violence specifically. These issues include homophobia, internalized homophobia, HIV and AIDS stigma, STD risk and other health issues, lack of legal support, and the violence they face being considered less serious than heterosexual domestic violence. Moreover, the issue of domestic violence in same-sex relationships has not been studied as comprehensively as domestic violence in heterosexual relationships. However, there are legal changes being made to help victims of domestic violence in same-sex relationships, as well as organizations that cater specifically to victims of domestic violence in same-sex relationships.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Sexual assault of LGBT persons</span>

Sexual assault of LGBT people, also known as sexual and gender minorities (SGM), is a form of violence that occurs within the LGBT community. While sexual assault and other forms of interpersonal violence can occur in all forms of relationships, it is found that sexual minorities experience it at rates that are equal to or higher than their heterosexual counterparts. There is a lack of research on this specific problem for the LGBT population as a whole, but there does exist a substantial amount of research on college LGBT students who have experienced sexual assault and sexual harassment.

Denise A. Hines is an American psychologist doing research on domestic violence and sexual abuse with focuses on prevention, intervention, and public policy. She is an associate professor in the Department of Psychology at Clark University in Worcester, Massachusetts.

Domestic violence in South Korea is the mental, physical, verbal or sexual abuses or crimes of violence committed towards a victim in a domestic setting of marital relations and cohabitation. Domestic violence describes violence towards a domestic partner, towards children and between siblings. According to the Domestic Violence Survey of South Korea in 2010, elder abuse was estimated to be 10%, physical abuse accounted for 2.2%, emotional abuse 9%, economic abuse 1.2%, and neglect 2.5%. Marital violence has been the most prevalent form of family violence in South Korea. One out of six couples in South Korea had more than one episode of physical violence from their spouse.

Violence against women in Thailand includes but is not limited to domestic violence, rape, sex trafficking, and murder. Violence against women impacts the individual as well as the family in long-term psychological and physical manners.

References

  1. ↑ Heise, Lori L.; Raikes, Alanagh; Watts, Charlotte H.; Zwi, Anthony B. (November 1994). "Violence against women: A neglected public health issue in less developed countries". Social Science & Medicine. 39 (9): 1165–1179. doi:10.1016/0277-9536(94)90349-2. PMID   7801154.
  2. 1 2 3 Kimuna, Sitawa R.; Djamba, Yanyi K. (30 January 2008). "Gender based violence: Correlates of physical and sexual wife abuse in Kenya". Journal of Family Violence. 23 (5): 333–342. doi:10.1007/s10896-008-9156-9. S2CID   31560333.
  3. 1 2 Palermo, T.; Bleck, J.; Peterman, A. (2014-03-01). "Tip of the Iceberg: Reporting and Gender-Based Violence in Developing Countries". American Journal of Epidemiology. 179 (5): 602–612. doi:10.1093/aje/kwt295. ISSN   0002-9262. PMC   3927971 . PMID   24335278.
  4. 1 2 3 4 5 Erulkar, Annabel S. (2004). "The Experience of Sexual Coercion among Young People in Kenya" (PDF). International Family Planning Perspectives. 30 (4): 182–189. doi: 10.1363/3018204 . JSTOR   1566492. PMID   15590384.
  5. 1 2 3 4 Shamu, Simukai; Abrahams, Naeemah; Temmerman, Marleen; Musekiwa, Alfred; Zarowsky, Christina (8 March 2011). "A systematic review of African studies on intimate partner violence against pregnant women: prevalence and risk factors". PLOS ONE. 6 (3): e17591. Bibcode:2011PLoSO...617591S. doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0017591 . PMC   3050907 . PMID   21408120.
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  8. 1 2 3 4 5 Njuki, Rebecca; Okal, Jerry; Warren, Charlotte E; Obare, Francis; Abuya, Timothy; Kanya, Lucy; Undie, Chi-Chi; Bellows, Ben; Askew, Ian (12 June 2012). "Exploring the effectiveness of the output-based aid voucher program to increase uptake of gender-based violence recovery services in Kenya: A qualitative evaluation". BMC Public Health. 12 (1): 426. doi: 10.1186/1471-2458-12-426 . PMC   3413608 . PMID   22691436.
  9. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 Kameri-Mbote, Patricia (2000). "Violence against women in Kenya. An analysis of law, policy and institutions" (PDF). International Environmental Law Research Centre. Retrieved 2018-01-06.
  10. ↑ Families of victims of macabre killings still cling to hope
  11. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 Simister, John Gordon (30 October 2009). "Domestic violence and female genital mutilation in Kenya: Effects of ethnicity and education". Journal of Family Violence. 25 (3): 247–257. doi:10.1007/s10896-009-9288-6. S2CID   21609519.
  12. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 Kim, Julia; Motsei, Mmatshilo (2002-04-01). ""Women enjoy punishment": attitudes and experiences of gender-based violence among PHC nurses in rural South Africa". Social Science & Medicine. 54 (8): 1243–1254. doi:10.1016/S0277-9536(01)00093-4. PMID   11989960.
  13. ↑ Unicef (2000). "Domestic Violence Against Women and Girls" (PDF). Innocenti Digest. 6: 1–30.
  14. 1 2 Roberts, Gwenneth L (December 1998). "The impact of domestic violence on women's mental health". Australian and New Zealand Journal of Public Health. 22 (7): 796–801. doi: 10.1111/j.1467-842x.1998.tb01496.x . PMID   9889446.
  15. 1 2 3 4 5 Coker, Ann L. "Physical and Mental Health Effects of Intimate Partner Violence for Men and Women". American Journal of Preventive Medicine. 24: 260–268.[ dead link ]
  16. 1 2 Ellsberg, Mary (2005). Researching Violence Against Women: A Practical Guide for Researchers and Activists. Washington D.C., United States: World Health Organization. pp. 1–259.
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