Complication (medicine)

Last updated February 26, 2024

A complication in medicine, or medical complication, is an unfavorable result of a disease, health condition, or treatment. Complications may adversely affect the prognosis, or outcome, of a disease. Complications generally involve a worsening in the severity of the disease or the development of new signs, symptoms, or pathological changes that may become widespread throughout the body and affect other organ systems. Thus, complications may lead to the development of new diseases resulting from previously existing diseases. Complications may also arise as a result of various treatments.

The development of complications depends on a number of factors, including the degree of vulnerability, susceptibility, age, health status, and immune system condition. Knowledge of the most common and severe complications of a disease, procedure, or treatment allows for prevention and preparation for treatment if they should occur.

Complications are not to be confused with sequelae, which are residual effects that occur after the acute (initial, most severe)^[1] phase of an illness or injury. Sequelae can appear early in the development of disease or weeks to months later and are a result of the initial injury or illness. For example, a scar resulting from a burn or dysphagia resulting from a stroke would be considered sequelae.^[2] In addition, complications should not be confused with comorbidities, which are diseases that occur concurrently but have no causative association. Complications are similar to adverse effects, but the latter term is typically used in pharmacological contexts or when the negative consequence is expected or common.

Common illnesses and complications

Iatrogenic complications

Medical errors can fall into various categories listed below:^[3]

Medication: Medication medical errors include wrong prescription, impaired delivery, or improper adherence. The process of prescribing medication is a complex process that relies on the accurate transfer of information through various parties. Prevention methods include increased use of electronic prescription, pre-packaging unit dosing, and ensuring medical literacy among patients.
Surgical: Surgery-related medical errors can be anesthesia-related, but most often include wrong-site and wrong-patient procedural errors. Preventive measures include following and double-checking standardized surgical protocol before, during, and after procedures. Universal surgical protocols include verification of patient identity and proper site-marking.
Diagnostic: Diagnostic errors include misdiagnosis, wrong diagnosis, and over diagnosis. Diagnostic errors are often the result of patient characteristics and physician bias.
Machine interface: Errors in this category refer to mistakes in human interaction with tools or machines. Machine-related errors can be reduced by standardization and clear differentiation in design of products.
Transition and handoff: Errors in this category can occur person-to-person or site-to-site during transfer, and can be managed by adhering to proper hand-off protocols.
Human factors, teamwork, and communication: Errors in this category highlight the impact of culture and relationships on communication. These concepts can play a role in other categories of medical errors. Preventive measures include cultivating a "culture of safety" which includes creating an environment where people feel comfortable discussing concerns, feedback, and errors without fear of punishment.

Image of a urinary catheter, a common cause of healthcare associated infections.
Healthcare-associated infections (HAIs): HAIs are complications of general treatments involving microorganisms or viral infections and are most commonly caused by indwelling devices (urinary catheters, central lines) or previous surgical procedures.^[4] Common microbes involved in HAIs are Escherichia coli, Proteus mirabilis,^[5] and Clostridium difficile.^[4] The most effective preventive measure is hand-hygiene.^[6]

Cardiovascular complications

Atrial fibrillation

Atrial fibrillation is a type of arrhythmia characterized by rapid and irregular heart rhythms due to irregular atrial activation by the atrioventricular (AV) node.^[7] In the pathogenesis of atrial fibrillation, there is no effective pumping of blood into either the pulmonary or systemic circulation from the left ventricle of the heart. The left and right ventricles (lower chambers of the heart) do not fill properly due to the irregular contraction of the left and right atria (upper chambers of the heart).^[7]

A patient with atrial fibrillation may experience symptoms of fatigue, dizziness or lightheadedness, heart palpitations, chest pain, and shortness of breath.^[7]^[8] The heart does not effectively pump blood into the pulmonary or systemic vasculature, and causes the blood to remain within the chambers of the heart.^[8]^[9] The collection of blood within the heart due to atrial fibrillation can cause and increase the risk of development of a thrombus (blood clot).^[9] The thrombus can also develop into an embolus (mobile blood clot) and travel into the systemic circulation.^[9] Atrial fibrillation is associated with an increase in risk of having a stroke especially if the embolus travels to the brain.^[9]

Other examples

Thrombosis in the heart or brain, causing stroke or acute myocardial infarction can be complications of blood coagulation disorders, phlebitis ^[10] (inflammation of the veins), endocarditis ^[11] and artificial heart valves.^[12]

Metabolic complications

Diabetes mellitus

Diabetes mellitus, also known simply as diabetes, is a disorder of the regulation of blood glucose (a common type of sugar) levels. There are two types of chronic diabetes mellitus: type I and type II. Both lead to abnormally high levels of blood glucose as the body is not able to properly absorb the sugar into tissues. Diabetes requires a life-long consistent monitoring of food intake, blood sugar levels, and physical activity. Diabetes mellitus may present a series of complications in an advanced or more severe stage, such as:

Cardiovascular disease. Adults with diabetes are significantly more likely to die from heart disease than are those without diabetes.^[13] Diabetes is associated with risk factors for various cardiovascular diseases including obesity, insulin resistance, high blood cholesterol and triglyceride content, and high blood pressure. These conditions increase risk of thrombosis, atherosclerosis (blockage of coronary arteries leading to inadequate supply of oxygen to parts of the heart), and hypertension^[13] which can lead to myocardial infarction, coronary artery disease (CAD), and others.
Diabetic neuropathy. Hyperglycemia can eventually cause damage to nerves in the distal extremities (peripheral neuropathy), thighs and hips (radiculoplexus neuropathy), face (mononeuropathy), and internal organs (autonomic neuropathy).^[14] Initial symptoms may present as numbness, tingling, pain, muscular weakness, loss of reflexes or proper bodily functions, and many others.^[14]
Diabetic nephropathy. Excessive amounts of certain solutes passing through the kidneys for prolonged periods of time can lead to kidney damage.^[15] Diabetic nephropathy is specifically characterized by abnormally high levels of urinary albumin excretion. This affects approximately 40% of patients with type I or type II diabetes.^[16]
Diabetic retinopathy. Chronic or prolonged type I and type II diabetes can lead to damage in the blood vessels of the retina due to hyperglycemia (excessive blood glucose). Damage and blockage of the vessels causes microaneurysms, tears, and leakage of fluid into the back of the eye. This can eventually lead to abnormal blood vessel growth, nerve damage, or excessive pressure buildup in the eye. Symptoms initially present as blurred vision but can lead to more serious complications such as blindness, glaucoma, retinal detachment, and vitreous hemorrhage.^[17]
Foot damage. Diabetes mellitus can lead to poor vascular blood flow to the extremities. Injury of the foot with inadequate blood flow can progress to ulcers and become infected. Individuals with diabetic neuropathy may not notice the damage^[18] and may develop gangrene ^[19] (tissue necrosis due to inadequate blood supply).

Commonly referred to as "diabetic foot," wounds and ulcers are a common complication of elevated blood sugar levels in diabetes.
Skin conditions.^[20] Insulin insensitivity in the case of type II diabetes can cause prolonged increases in blood insulin. Insulin normally binds to insulin receptors but in excess amounts may bind to insulin-like growth factor (IGF) receptors in epithelial tissue. This can cause excessive proliferation of keratinocytes and fibroblasts.^[21] This presents as acanthosis nigricans, a thickening and darkening of areas of the skin such as the armpits, necks, hands, and face.^[22] Other skin conditions include diabetic dermopathy, digital sclerosis, eruptive xanthomatosis, and others.

Neurologic / psychiatric complications

Hepatic encephalopathy is a possible complication of liver cirrhosis.^[23]
Significant intellectual, physical, and developmental disability are common complications of untreated hydrocephalus.^[24]
Suicide is a common complication of many disorders and conditions that consistently affect a person's life negatively, such as major depressive disorder,^[25] posttraumatic stress disorder,^[26] schizophrenia,^[27] anxiety disorders,^[28] or substance abuse.
Complications of outpatient drugs are very common and many patients experience worry or discomfort due to them.^[29]
Paradoxical reaction to a drug; that is, a reaction that is the opposite to the intended purpose of the drug. An example is benzodiazepines, a class of psychoactive drugs considered minor tranquilizers with varying hypnotic, sedative, anxiolytic, anticonvulsant, and muscle relaxant effects; paradoxically they may also create hyperactivity, anxiety, convulsions etc. in susceptible individuals.^[30]

Reproductive complications

Pregnancy

Pregnancy is the development of an embryo or fetus inside the womb of a female for the rough duration of 9 months or 40 weeks from the last menstrual period until birth.^[31] It is divided into three trimesters, each lasting for about 3 months. The 1st trimester is when the developing embryo becomes a fetus, organs start to develop, limbs grow, and facial features appear.^[32] The 2nd and 3rd trimesters are marked by a significant amount of growth and functional development of the body.^[31] During this time, the woman's body undergoes a series of changes and many complications may arise involving either the fetus, the mother, or both.^[33]

Hypertension. The developing fetus enlarges in the mother's womb, placing pressure on the arteries and vasculature of the mother. This causes a reduction in blood flow and a systemic increase in blood pressure. If the mother had high blood pressure prior to and after pregnancy it is considered chronic hypertension; if it occurs after 20 weeks of gestation or pregnancy, it is gestational hypertension. A previously hypertensive mother who shows signs of gestational hypertension can lead to preeclampsia, a more severe case which can be detrimental to the mother and developing fetus.^[34]
Gestational diabetes. Appropriate levels of blood sugar is typically maintained by insulin secretion from the pancreas.^[35] During pregnancy the placenta surrounding the developing fetus produces hormones that can inhibit the action of insulin, preventing the mother's blood sugar from decreasing. Occurs primarily in the second half of pregnancy and can cause excessive birth weight, preterm delivery, and place the child at greater risk for type II diabetes.^[36]
Preterm labor. Delivery of the baby prior to 37 weeks of pregnancy is considered preterm.^[37] This can cause a variety of issues with the child including underdeveloped viscera (organs), behavioral or learning disabilities, low birth weight, and respiratory issues.^[38]
Miscarriage. The loss of the developing fetus prior to 20 weeks of pregnancy.^[37] Common causes may be related to chromosomal abnormalities (abnormal genetic makeup) of the fetus but can also include ectopic pregnancy, maternal age, and other factors.^[39]
Stillbirth. The loss of the developing fetus after 20 weeks of pregnancy. Can be due to a variety of reasons including chromosomal abnormalities, developmental issues, or health-related problems of the mother.^[37]
Hyperemesis gravidarum.^[40] Persistent, acute nausea throughout pregnancy that does not go away after the 1st trimester. Different from morning sickness which is more common and less severe.^[41]

Respiratory complications

Streptococcal pharyngitis

Streptococcal pharyngitis, also known as strep throat, is an infection of the respiratory tract caused by group A Strep, Streptococcus pyogenes , a gram-positive, cocci, beta-hemolytic (lyses blood cells) bacteria.^[42] It is primarily spread by direct contact and the transfer of fluids via oral or other secretions and manifests largely in children.^[42] Common symptoms associated with streptococcal pharyngitis include sore throat, fever, white excretions at the back of the mouth, and cervical adenopathy (swollen lymph nodes underneath the chin and around the neck area).^[43] Streptococcal pharyngitis can lead to various complications^[44] and recurrent infection can increase the likelihood. In many of these, lack of treatment^[45] and the body's immune response is responsible for the additional adverse reactions.^[46] These include:^[44]

Scarlet fever.^[47] In addition to the symptoms of strep throat, individuals may experience increased a red rash, increased red tone, and strawberry tongue.^[47] The prominent rash generally fades after a few days and may peel for a few weeks.^[48] Treatment is the same as for strep throat.^[49]
Rheumatic fever. Rheumatic fever generally develops a few weeks after symptoms of strep throat have passed and is less likely to develop if prompt treatment (antibiotics) is given.^[45] Typical symptoms can include polyarthritis (temporary joint pain in multiple areas), carditis or chest pain, rash, subcutaneous nodules, and involuntary jerks. Rheumatic fever is believed to be the result of an autoimmune reaction to various tissues in the body that are similar to toxins produced by Streptococcus pyogenes. Rheumatic fever may lead to more serious complications of the heart such as rheumatic heart disease. ^[50]
Glomerulonephritis. Onset of kidney damage that may present a few weeks after strep infection. Rather than being a direct result of infection in the kidneys, It is believed to be caused by an overreactive immune response. Symptoms can include blood or protein in the urine, hypertension, and reduced urine output. Can lead to further kidney damage later in life^[51]
Otitis media. Infection of the middle ear.^[52]
Meningitis. Infection of the meninges of the central nervous system (brain and spinal cord) that leads to swelling. Symptoms vary and differ between adults and children but can include headaches, fever, stiff neck, and other neurological-related issues. Early treatment is important to prevent more serious complications.^[53]
Toxic shock syndrome. A severe reaction of the body to toxins produced by various bacteria such as Streptococcus pyogenes.^[54] Results from an overactive response by the immune system and can cause hypotension, fever, and in more severe cases, organ failure.^[55]

Surgical / procedural complications

Puerperal fever was a common complication of childbirth, contributing to the high mortality of mothers before the advent of antisepsis and antibiotics.^[56]
Erectile dysfunction and urinary incontinence which may follow prostatectomy.^[57]^[58]
Malignant hyperthermia can be a reaction to general anesthetics, as a complication in a surgery.^[59]
Fractured ribs and sternum may be a complication of cardiopulmonary resuscitation attempts.^[60]

Other examples of complications

Sepsis (infection of the blood) may occur as a complication of a bacterial, viral, or fungal infection.^[61]
Miscarriage is the most common complication of early pregnancy.^[62]
Eczema vaccinatum is a rare and severe complication of smallpox vaccination ^[63] in people with eczema.

Related Research Articles

Hypoglycemia, also called low blood sugar, is a fall in blood sugar to levels below normal, typically below 70 mg/dL (3.9 mmol/L). Whipple's triad is used to properly identify hypoglycemic episodes. It is defined as blood glucose below 70 mg/dL (3.9 mmol/L), symptoms associated with hypoglycemia, and resolution of symptoms when blood sugar returns to normal. Hypoglycemia may result in headache, tiredness, clumsiness, trouble talking, confusion, fast heart rate, sweating, shakiness, nervousness, hunger, loss of consciousness, seizures, or death. Symptoms typically come on quickly.

Obstetrics is the field of study concentrated on pregnancy, childbirth and the postpartum period. As a medical specialty, obstetrics is combined with gynecology under the discipline known as obstetrics and gynecology (OB/GYN), which is a surgical field.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Diabetic ketoacidosis</span> Medical condition

Diabetic ketoacidosis (DKA) is a potentially life-threatening complication of diabetes mellitus. Signs and symptoms may include vomiting, abdominal pain, deep gasping breathing, increased urination, weakness, confusion and occasionally loss of consciousness. A person's breath may develop a specific "fruity" smell. The onset of symptoms is usually rapid. People without a previous diagnosis of diabetes may develop DKA as the first obvious symptom.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Hyperglycemia</span> Too much blood sugar, usually because of diabetes

Hyperglycemia is a condition in which an excessive amount of glucose circulates in the blood plasma. This is generally a blood sugar level higher than 11.1 mmol/L (200 mg/dL), but symptoms may not start to become noticeable until even higher values such as 13.9–16.7 mmol/L (~250–300 mg/dL). A subject with a consistent fasting blood glucose range between ~5.6 and ~7 mmol/L is considered slightly hyperglycemic, and above 7 mmol/L is generally held to have diabetes. For diabetics, glucose levels that are considered to be too hyperglycemic can vary from person to person, mainly due to the person's renal threshold of glucose and overall glucose tolerance. On average, however, chronic levels above 10–12 mmol/L (180–216 mg/dL) can produce noticeable organ damage over time.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Scarlet fever</span> Infectious disease caused by Streptococcus pyogenes

Scarlet fever, also known as scarlatina, is an infectious disease caused by Streptococcus pyogenes, a Group A streptococcus (GAS). It most commonly affects children between five and 15 years of age. The signs and symptoms include a sore throat, fever, headache, swollen lymph nodes, and a characteristic rash. The face is flushed and the rash is red and blanching. It typically feels like sandpaper and the tongue may be red and bumpy. The rash occurs as a result of capillary damage by exotoxins produced by S.pyogenes. On darker-pigmented skin the rash may be hard to discern.

Streptococcal pharyngitis, also known as streptococcal sore throat, is pharyngitis caused by Streptococcus pyogenes, a gram-positive, group A streptococcus. Common symptoms include fever, sore throat, red tonsils, and enlarged lymph nodes in the front of the neck. A headache and nausea or vomiting may also occur. Some develop a sandpaper-like rash which is known as scarlet fever. Symptoms typically begin one to three days after exposure and last seven to ten days.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Sore throat</span> Medical condition

Sore throat, also known as throat pain, is pain or irritation of the throat. Usually, causes of sore throat include:

Mitral stenosis is a valvular heart disease characterized by the narrowing of the opening of the mitral valve of the heart. It is almost always caused by rheumatic valvular heart disease. Normally, the mitral valve is about 5 cm² during diastole. Any decrease in area below 2 cm² causes mitral stenosis. Early diagnosis of mitral stenosis in pregnancy is very important as the heart cannot tolerate increased cardiac output demand as in the case of exercise and pregnancy. Atrial fibrillation is a common complication of resulting left atrial enlargement, which can lead to systemic thromboembolic complications such as stroke.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Catheter ablation</span> Removal or termination of an electrical pathway from parts of the heart

Catheter ablation is a procedure that uses radio-frequency energy or other sources to terminate or modify a faulty electrical pathway from sections of the heart of those who are prone to developing cardiac arrhythmias such as atrial fibrillation, atrial flutter and Wolff-Parkinson-White syndrome. If not controlled, such arrhythmias increase the risk of ventricular fibrillation and sudden cardiac arrest. The ablation procedure can be classified by energy source: radiofrequency ablation and cryoablation.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Large for gestational age</span> Medical condition

Large for gestational age (LGA) is a term used to describe infants that are born with an abnormally high weight, specifically in the 90th percentile or above, compared to other babies of the same developmental age. Macrosomia is a similar term that describes excessive birth weight, but refers to an absolute measurement, regardless of gestational age. Typically the threshold for diagnosing macrosomia is a body weight between 4,000 and 4,500 grams, or more, measured at birth, but there are difficulties reaching a universal agreement of this definition.

Complications of pregnancy are health problems that are related to, or arise during pregnancy. Complications that occur primarily during childbirth are termed obstetric labor complications, and problems that occur primarily after childbirth are termed puerperal disorders. While some complications improve or are fully resolved after pregnancy, some may lead to lasting effects, morbidity, or in the most severe cases, maternal or fetal mortality.

Type 1 diabetes (T1D), formerly known as juvenile diabetes, is an autoimmune disease that originates when cells that make insulin are destroyed by the immune system. Insulin is a hormone required for the cells to use blood sugar for energy and it helps regulate glucose levels in the bloodstream. Before treatment this results in high blood sugar levels in the body. The common symptoms of this elevated blood sugar are frequent urination, increased thirst, increased hunger, weight loss, and other serious complications. Additional symptoms may include blurry vision, tiredness, and slow wound healing. Symptoms typically develop over a short period of time, often a matter of weeks if not months.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Diabetes and pregnancy</span> Effects of pre-existing diabetes upon pregnancy

For pregnant women with diabetes, some particular challenges exist for both mother and fetus. If the pregnant woman has diabetes as a pre-existing disorder, it can cause early labor, birth defects, and larger than average infants. Therefore, experts advise diabetics to maintain blood sugar level close to normal range about 3 months before planning for pregnancy.

Lutembacher's syndrome is a very rare form of congenital heart disease that affects one of the chambers of the heart as well as a valve. It is commonly known as both congenital atrial septal defect (ASD) and acquired mitral stenosis (MS). Congenital atrial septal defect refers to a hole being in the septum or wall that separates the two atria; this condition is usually seen in fetuses and infants. Mitral stenosis refers to mitral valve leaflets sticking to each other making the opening for blood to pass from the atrium to the ventricles very small. With the valve being so small, blood has difficulty passing from the left atrium into the left ventricle. Septal defects that may occur with Lutembacher's syndrome include: Ostium primum atrial septal defect or ostium secundum which is more prevalent.

Atrial fibrillation is an abnormal heart rhythm (arrhythmia) characterized by rapid and irregular beating of the atrial chambers of the heart. It often begins as short periods of abnormal beating, which become longer or continuous over time. It may also start as other forms of arrhythmia such as atrial flutter that then transform into AF.

Complications of diabetes are secondary diseases that are a result of elevated blood glucose levels that occur in diabetic patients. These complications can be divided into two types: acute and chronic. Acute complications are complications that develop rapidly and can be exemplified as diabetic ketoacidosis (DKA), hyperglycemic hyperosmolar state (HHS), lactic acidosis (LA), and hypoglycemia. Chronic complications develop over time and are generally classified in two categories: microvascular and macrovascular. Microvascular complications include neuropathy, nephropathy, and retinopathy; while cardiovascular disease, stroke, and peripheral vascular disease are included in the macrovascular complications.

Dysglycemia is a general definition for any abnormalities in blood glucose levels. They include hyperglycemia, hypoglycemia, impaired glucose tolerance test, impaired fasting glucose, among others.

The following outline is provided as an overview of and topical guide to diabetes mellitus :

A high-risk pregnancy is a pregnancy where the mother or the fetus has an increased risk of adverse outcomes compared to uncomplicated pregnancies. No concrete guidelines currently exist for distinguishing “high-risk” pregnancies from “low-risk” pregnancies; however, there are certain studied conditions that have been shown to put the mother or fetus at a higher risk of poor outcomes. These conditions can be classified into three main categories: health problems in the mother that occur before she becomes pregnant, health problems in the mother that occur during pregnancy, and certain health conditions with the fetus.

Diabetes mellitus, often known simply as diabetes, is a group of common endocrine diseases characterized by sustained high blood sugar levels. Diabetes is due to either the pancreas not producing enough insulin, or the cells of the body becoming unresponsive to the hormone's effects. Classic symptoms include thirst, polyuria, weight loss, and blurred vision. If left untreated, the disease can lead to various health complications, including disorders of the cardiovascular system, eye, kidney, and nerves. Untreated or poorly treated diabetes accounts for approximately 1.5 million deaths every year.

References

↑ "Acute vs. chronic conditions: MedlinePlus Medical Encyclopedia Image". medlineplus.gov. Retrieved 2019-08-30.
↑ Kouchoukos NT, Blackstone EH, Hanley FL, Kirklin JK (2013). Kirklin/Barratt-Boyes cardiac surgery : morphology, diagnostic criteria, natural history, techniques, results, and indications (4th ed.). Philadelphia: Elsevier/Saunders. ISBN 978-1-4557-4605-7. OCLC 812289395.
↑ Gupta K, Wachter RM (2018). Understanding Patient Safety (3rd ed.). New York, N.Y.: McGraw-Hill Education LLC. OCLC 1073069539.
1 2 "Overview - Health Care-Associated Infections - health.gov". health.gov. Retrieved 2019-08-30.
↑ Jacobsen, S. M.; Stickler, D. J.; Mobley, H. L. T.; Shirtliff, M. E. (January 2008). "Complicated Catheter-Associated Urinary Tract Infections Due to Escherichia coli and Proteus mirabilis". Clinical Microbiology Reviews. 21 (1): 26–59. doi:10.1128/CMR.00019-07. ISSN 0893-8512. PMC 2223845 . PMID 18202436.
↑ Mehta, Yatin; Gupta, Abhinav; Todi, Subhash; Myatra, SN; Samaddar, D. P.; Patil, Vijaya; Bhattacharya, Pradip Kumar; Ramasubban, Suresh (March 2014). "Guidelines for prevention of hospital acquired infections". Indian Journal of Critical Care Medicine. 18 (3): 149–163. doi: 10.4103/0972-5229.128705 . ISSN 0972-5229. PMC 3963198 . PMID 24701065.
1 2 3 Harrison TR, Kasper DL, Hauser SL, Jameson JL, Fauci AS, Longo DL, Loscalzo J (2018-08-13). Harrison's principles of internal medicine (20th ed.). New York. ISBN 9781259644030. OCLC 1029074059.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)
1 2 Gleason KT, Nazarian S, Dennison Himmelfarb CR (2018). "Atrial Fibrillation Symptoms and Sex, Race, and Psychological Distress: A Literature Review". The Journal of Cardiovascular Nursing. 33 (2): 137–143. doi:10.1097/JCN.0000000000000421. PMC 5733721 . PMID 28628500.
1 2 3 4 Lip GY, Lane DA (May 2015). "Stroke prevention in atrial fibrillation: a systematic review". JAMA. 313 (19): 1950–62. doi:10.1001/jama.2015.4369. PMID 25988464.
↑ "Thrombophlebitis - Symptoms and causes". Mayo Clinic. Retrieved 2019-08-30.
↑ "Endocarditis - Symptoms and causes". Mayo Clinic. Retrieved 2019-08-30.
↑ "Heart valve surgery - Mayo Clinic". mayoclinic.org. Retrieved 2019-08-30.
1 2 "Cardiovascular Disease and Diabetes". heart.org. Retrieved 2019-08-30.
1 2 "Diabetic neuropathy - Symptoms and causes". Mayo Clinic. Retrieved 2019-08-30.
↑ Lim, Andy KH (2014-10-15). "Diabetic nephropathy – complications and treatment". International Journal of Nephrology and Renovascular Disease. 7: 361–381. doi: 10.2147/IJNRD.S40172 . ISSN 1178-7058. PMC 4206379 . PMID 25342915.
↑ Zelmanovitz, Themis; Caramori, Maria Luiza; Canani, Luís Henrique; Silveiro, Sandra P.; Azevedo, Mirela J. de; Gross, Jorge L. (2005-01-01). "Diabetic Nephropathy: Diagnosis, Prevention, and Treatment". Diabetes Care. 28 (1): 164–176. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.553.6980 . doi: 10.2337/diacare.28.1.164 . ISSN 0149-5992. PMID 15616252.
↑ "Diabetic retinopathy - Symptoms and causes". Mayo Clinic. Retrieved 2019-08-30.
↑ "Diabetic Foot". medlineplus.gov. Retrieved 2019-08-30.
↑ "Diabetic Foot Problems". WebMD. Retrieved 2019-08-30.
↑ "Diabetes - Symptoms and causes". Mayo Clinic. Retrieved 2019-08-30.
↑ Phiske, Meghana Madhukar (2014). "An approach to acanthosis nigricans". Indian Dermatology Online Journal. 5 (3): 239–249. doi: 10.4103/2229-5178.137765 . ISSN 2229-5178. PMC 4144206 . PMID 25165638.
↑ "Diabetes & Skin Conditions". Cleveland Clinic. Retrieved 2019-08-30.
↑ "Cirrhosis - Symptoms and causes". Mayo Clinic. Retrieved 2019-08-30.
↑ "Hydrocephalus - Symptoms and causes". Mayo Clinic. Retrieved 2019-08-30.
↑ "Depression (major depressive disorder) - Symptoms and causes". Mayo Clinic. Retrieved 2019-08-30.
↑ "Post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) - Symptoms and causes". Mayo Clinic. Retrieved 2019-08-30.
↑ "Schizophrenia - Symptoms and causes". Mayo Clinic. Retrieved 2019-08-30.
↑ "Anxiety disorders - Symptoms and causes". Mayo Clinic. Retrieved 2019-08-30.
↑ Gandhi TK, Burstin HR, Cook EF, Puopolo AL, Haas JS, Brennan TA, Bates DW (March 2000). "Drug complications in outpatients". Journal of General Internal Medicine. 15 (3): 149–54. doi:10.1046/j.1525-1497.2000.04199.x. PMC 1495358 . PMID 10718894.
↑ Mancuso CE, Tanzi MG, Gabay M (September 2004). "Paradoxical reactions to benzodiazepines: literature review and treatment options" . Pharmacotherapy. 24 (9): 1177–85. doi:10.1592/phco.24.13.1177.38089. PMID 15460178. S2CID 38614605.
1 2 "Definition of Pregnancy". MedicineNet. Retrieved 2019-08-30.
↑ "Fetal development: What happens during the 1st trimester?". Mayo Clinic. Retrieved 2019-08-30.
↑ "What are some common complications of pregnancy?". nichd.nih.gov/. Retrieved 2019-09-02.
↑ "Gestational Hypertension: Pregnancy Induced Hypertension". American Pregnancy Association. 2012-04-27. Retrieved 2019-08-30.
↑ Wilcox, Gisela (May 2005). "Insulin and Insulin Resistance". Clinical Biochemist Reviews. 26 (2): 19–39. ISSN 0159-8090. PMC 1204764 . PMID 16278749.
↑ "Gestational diabetes - Symptoms and causes". Mayo Clinic. Retrieved 2019-08-30.
1 2 3 "What are some common complications of pregnancy?". nichd.nih.gov/. Retrieved 2019-08-30.
↑ "Preterm labor - Symptoms and causes". Mayo Clinic. Retrieved 2019-08-30.
↑ "Miscarriage: Signs, Symptoms, Treatment and Prevention". American Pregnancy Association. 2012-04-27. Retrieved 2019-08-30.
↑ "Pregnancy Complications | Maternal and Infant Health | CDC". cdc.gov. 2019-01-16. Retrieved 2019-08-30.
↑ "Hyperemesis gravidarum: MedlinePlus Medical Encyclopedia". medlineplus.gov. Retrieved 2019-08-30.
1 2 "Group A Strep | Strep Throat | For Clinicians | GAS | CDC". cdc.gov. 2019-04-19. Retrieved 2019-09-02.
↑ Choby, Beth A. (2009-03-01). "Diagnosis and Treatment of Streptococcal Pharyngitis". American Family Physician. 79 (5): 383–390. ISSN 0002-838X. PMID 19275067.
1 2 "What Are the Possible Complications of Strep Throat?". MedicineNet. Retrieved 2019-09-02.
1 2 "Rheumatic fever - Symptoms and causes". Mayo Clinic. Retrieved 2019-09-02.
↑ "Strep Throat Complications | Michigan Medicine". uofmhealth.org. Retrieved 2019-09-02.
1 2 "Scarlet fever - Symptoms and causes". Mayo Clinic. Retrieved 2019-09-02.
↑ "Scarlet Fever (for Parents) - KidsHealth". kidshealth.org. Retrieved 2019-09-02.
↑ "Articles". Cedars-Sinai. Archived from the original on 2020-05-30. Retrieved 2019-09-02.
↑ "Group A Strep | Rheumatic Fever | GAS | CDC". cdc.gov. 2019-02-21. Retrieved 2019-09-02.
↑ Rawla, Prashanth; Ludhwani, Dipesh (2019), "Poststreptococcal Glomerulonephritis", StatPearls, StatPearls Publishing, PMID 30855843 , retrieved 2019-09-02
↑ "Otitis Media". hopkinsmedicine.org. Retrieved 2019-09-02.
↑ "Meningitis - Symptoms and causes". Mayo Clinic. Retrieved 2019-09-02.
↑ "Toxic Shock Syndrome: Background, Pathophysiology, Etiology". 2019-01-15.{{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help)
↑ Ross, Adam; Shoff, Hugh W. (2019), "Toxic Shock Syndrome", StatPearls, StatPearls Publishing, PMID 29083727 , retrieved 2019-09-02
↑ Bauerschmitz, G.; Hellriegel, M.; Strauchmann, J.; Schäper, J.; Emons, G. (2014-09-03). "Fulminant Puerperal Sepsis caused by Hemolytic Group A Streptococci and Toxic Shock Syndrome – A Case Report and Review of the Literature". Geburtshilfe und Frauenheilkunde (in German). 74 (8): 764–767. doi:10.1055/s-0034-1382854. ISSN 0016-5751. PMC 4153815 . PMID 25221345.
↑ Mayo Clinic Staff. "Open prostatectomy risks". Mayo Clinic. Retrieved 31 October 2014.
↑ Silva LA, Andriolo RB, Atallah ÁN, da Silva EM (September 2014). "Surgery for stress urinary incontinence due to presumed sphincter deficiency after prostate surgery". The Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews. 9 (9): CD008306. doi:10.1002/14651858.CD008306.pub3. PMC 7105906 . PMID 25261861.
↑ "Malignant hyperthermia: MedlinePlus Medical Encyclopedia". medlineplus.gov. Retrieved 2019-08-30.
↑ Kottachchi, Dan T.; Dong, Jihao; Reid, Susan (February 2009). "A rare complication of cardiopulmonary resuscitation". Canadian Journal of Surgery. 52 (1): E1–E2. ISSN 0008-428X. PMC 2637639 . PMID 19234634.
↑ "Sepsis - Symptoms and causes". Mayo Clinic. Retrieved 2019-08-30.
↑ National Coordinating Centre for Women's and Children's Health (UK) (December 2012). "Ectopic Pregnancy and Miscarriage: Diagnosis and Initial Management in Early Pregnancy of Ectopic Pregnancy and Miscarriage". NICE Clinical Guidelines, No. 154. Royal College of Obstetricians and Gynaecologists. PMID 23638497. Archived from the original on October 20, 2013. Retrieved July 4, 2013.
↑ "Side Effects of Smallpox Vaccination | Smallpox | CDC". cdc.gov. 2019-02-15. Retrieved 2019-08-30.