Parental abuse by children

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Child-to-parent violence (CPV), also recognized as abuse of parents by their children, constitutes a manifestation of domestic violence characterized by the infliction of maltreatment upon parents. This mistreatment commonly manifests in verbal or physical forms.

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The repercussions of enduring abuse from one's offspring can be substantial, exerting influence on the physical and mental well-being of parents, both in the immediate and prolonged periods.

CPV can manifest in diverse forms, encompassing physical, verbal, psychological, emotional, and financial dimensions. [1] : 3–6 

The occurrence of parental abuse by adolescents spans a variable age range, with adolescents defined as individuals aged between 12 and 24 years.

Multiple causes of abusive behavior

Many people consider parental abuse to be the result of certain parenting practices, neglect, or the child suffering abuse themselves, but other adolescent abusers have had "normal" upbringings and have not suffered from such situations. Children may be subjected to violence on TV, in movies and in music, and that violence may come to be considered "normal". [2] The breakdown of the family unit, poor or nonexistent relationships with an absent parent, as well as debt, unemployment, and parental drug/alcohol abuse may all be contributing factors to abuse. Some other reasons for CPV according to several experts include: [1] [3]

History

Parental abuse is a relatively new term. In 1979, Harbin and Madden [4] released a study using the term "parent battery" but juvenile delinquency, which is a major factor, has been studied since the late 19th century. [5] Even though some studies have been done in the United States, Australia, Canada, and other countries, the lack of reporting of adolescent abuse towards parents makes it difficult to accurately determine the extent of it. Many studies have to rely on self-reporting by adolescents. [6] [7] In 2004, Robinson, [5] of Brigham Young University, published: Parent Abuse on the Rise: A Historical Review in the American Association of Behavioral Social Science Online Journal, reporting the results of the 1988 study performed by Evans and Warren-Sohlberg. [8] The results reported that 57% of parental abuse was physical; using a weapon was at 17%; throwing items was at 5% and verbal abuse was at 22%. With 82% of the abuse being against mothers (five times greater than against fathers), and 11% of the abusers were under the age of 10 years. The highest rate of abuse happens within families with a single mother. Mothers are usually the primary caregivers; they spend more time with their children than fathers and have closer emotional connections to them. It can also be due to the size and strength of the abuser. Parental abuse can occur in any family and it is not necessarily associated with ethnic background, socio-economic class, or sexual orientation.

Numerous studies concluded that gender does not play a role in the total number of perpetrators; however, males are more likely to inflict physical abuse and females are more likely to inflict emotional abuse. [1] [7] [9] Studies from the United States estimate that violence among adolescents peaks at 15–17 years old. [8] [10] [11] However, a Canadian study done by Barbara Cottrell in 2001 suggests the ages are 12–14 years old. [1]

Parental abuse does not happen just inside the home but can in public places, further adding to the humiliation of the parents. Abuse is not only a domestic affair but can be criminal as well. Most teenagers experience a transition in which they try to go from being dependent to independent, but there are some dynamics of parental control that may alter it. There will always be times of resistance toward parental authority. According to the Canadian National Clearinghouse on Family Violence, the abuse generally begins with verbal abuse, but even then, some females can be very physically abusive towards a child who is smaller and more vulnerable than they are, and to cover their abuse, they often lie to the other parent about actual events that led to "severe punishment." The child, adolescent or parent may show no remorse or guilt and feel justified in the behavior, but many times when the child is the one who is being abused, they are very remorseful for being forced to defend themselves, especially when they are not the aggressor. [5] Parents can examine the behavior of their children to determine whether or not it is abusive. Some teenagers can become aggressive as a result of parental abuse, dysfunction, or psychological problems, while some children may have trouble dealing with their emotions. However, children who are abused are not always afforded protection from their abusive parents. [1]

Intervention

Non-violent resistance (NVR) is an approach designed to overcome a child’s aggressive, controlling, and self-destructive behaviors. [12] [13] In NVR, parents replace talking with action, not engaging with aggressive or harmful behaviors. [14] With the support of therapists and other counselors, it is possible to identify mental health and other behavioral concerns throughout this process. It has four areas where parents are supported by therapists or other counselors: [14]

  1. De-escalation
  2. Breaking taboos
  3. Taking non-violent actions
  4. Reconciliation gestures

While intervention is an option, it may not always work. There are times when the child has a mental illness that does not allow them, adolescent or teenager, to understand what exactly is happening. Therefore, they act out their emotions the only way they know. This can present itself as violence, emotional abuse, destructive behavior, such as destroying personal property or self-harm. The United States currently protects abused children using Courts, Child Protective Services and other agencies. The US also has Adult Protective Services which is provided to abused, neglected, or exploited older adults and adults with significant disabilities. There are no agencies or programs that protect parents from abusive children, adolescents or teenagers other than giving up their parental rights to the state they live in. [15]

Lastly, the quality of family relationships directly influences child-to-parent violence, with power-assertive discipline playing a mediating role in this connection. It appears that the emotional aspect and overall quality of family relationships are pivotal factors in preventing violent behaviors. [16]

See also

Related Research Articles

Abuse is the improper usage or treatment of a person or thing, often to unfairly or improperly gain benefit. Abuse can come in many forms, such as: physical or verbal maltreatment, injury, assault, violation, rape, unjust practices, crimes, or other types of aggression. To these descriptions, one can also add the Kantian notion of the wrongness of using another human being as means to an end rather than as ends in themselves. Some sources describe abuse as "socially constructed", which means there may be more or less recognition of the suffering of a victim at different times and societies.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Physical abuse</span> Medical condition

Physical abuse is any intentional act causing injury or trauma to another person or animal by way of bodily contact. In most cases, children are the victims of physical abuse, but adults can also be victims, as in cases of domestic violence or workplace aggression. Alternative terms sometimes used include physical assault or physical violence, and may also include sexual abuse. Physical abuse may involve more than one abuser, and more than one victim.

Psychological abuse, often known as emotional abuse or psychological violence, is a form of abuse characterized by a person subjecting or exposing another person to a behavior that may result in psychological trauma, including anxiety, chronic depression, clinical depression or post-traumatic stress disorder amongst other psychological problems.

Parental alienation is a theorized process through which a child becomes estranged from one parent as the result of the psychological manipulation of another parent. The child's estrangement may manifest itself as fear, disrespect or hostility toward the distant parent, and may extend to additional relatives or parties. The child's estrangement is disproportionate to any acts or conduct attributable to the alienated parent. Parental alienation can occur in any family unit, but is claimed to occur most often within the context of family separation, particularly when legal proceedings are involved, although the participation of professionals such as lawyers, judges and psychologists may also contribute to conflict.

A form of child abuse, child neglect is an act of caregivers that results in depriving a child of their basic needs, such as the failure to provide adequate supervision, health care, clothing, or housing, as well as other physical, emotional, social, educational, and safety needs. All societies have established that there are necessary behaviours a caregiver must provide for a child to develop physically, socially, and emotionally. Causes of neglect may result from several parenting problems including mental disorders, unplanned pregnancy, substance use disorder, unemployment, over employment, domestic violence, and, in special cases, poverty.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Dysfunctional family</span> Family dynamic

A dysfunctional family is a family in which conflict, misbehavior and often child neglect or abuse on the part of individual parents occur continuously and regularly. Children that grow up in such families may think such a situation is normal. Dysfunctional families are primarily a result of two adults, one typically overtly abusive and the other codependent, and may also be affected by substance abuse or other forms of addiction, or sometimes by an untreated mental illness. Parents having grown up in a dysfunctional family may over-correct or emulate their own parents. In some cases, the dominant parent will abuse or neglect their children and the other parent will not object, misleading a child to assume blame.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Child abuse</span> Maltreatment or neglect of a child

Child abuse is physical, sexual, emotional and/or psychological maltreatment or neglect of a child, especially by a parent or a caregiver. Child abuse may include any act or failure to act by a parent or a caregiver that results in actual or potential wrongful harm to a child and can occur in a child's home, or in organizations, schools, or communities the child interacts with.

Verbal abuse is a type of psychological/mental abuse that involves the use of oral, gestured, and written language directed to a victim. Verbal abuse can include the act of harassing, labeling, insulting, scolding, rebuking, or excessive yelling towards an individual. It can also include the use of derogatory terms, the delivery of statements intended to frighten, humiliate, denigrate, or belittle a person. These kinds of attacks may result in mental and/or emotional distress for the victim.

The term cycle of violence refers to repeated and dangerous acts of violence as a cyclical pattern, associated with high emotions and doctrines of retribution or revenge. The pattern, or cycle, repeats and can happen many times during a relationship. Each phase may last a different length of time, and over time the level of violence may increase. The phrase has been increasingly widespread since first popularized in the 1970s.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Parenting styles</span> Psychological construct

A parenting style is a pattern of behaviors, attitudes, and approaches that a parent uses when interacting with and raising their child. The study of parenting styles is based on the idea that parents differ in their patterns of parenting and that these patterns can have a significant impact on their children's development and well-being. Parenting styles are distinct from specific parenting practices, since they represent broader patterns of practices and attitudes that create an emotional climate for the child. Parenting styles also encompass the ways in which parents respond to and make demands on their children.

Sibling abuse includes the physical, psychological, or sexual abuse of one sibling by another. More often than not, the younger sibling is abused by the older sibling. Sibling abuse is the most common of family violence in the US, but the least reported. As opposed to sibling rivalry, sibling abuse is characterized by the one-sided treatment of one sibling to another.

Childhood trauma is often described as serious adverse childhood experiences (ACEs). Children may go through a range of experiences that classify as psychological trauma; these might include neglect, abandonment, sexual abuse, emotional abuse, and physical abuse, witnessing abuse of a sibling or parent, or having a mentally ill parent. These events have profound psychological, physiological, and sociological impacts and can have negative, lasting effects on health and well-being such as unsocial behaviors, attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), and sleep disturbances. Similarly, children whose mothers have experienced traumatic or stressful events during pregnancy have an increased risk of mental health disorders and other neurodevelopmental disorders.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Residential treatment center</span> Live-in healthcare facility

A residential treatment center (RTC), sometimes called a rehab, is a live-in health care facility providing therapy for substance use disorders, mental illness, or other behavioral problems. Residential treatment may be considered the "last-ditch" approach to treating abnormal psychology or psychopathology.

Teen dating violence is the physical, sexual, or psychological / emotional abuse within a dating relationship among adolescents. Intimate partner violence (IPV) has been a well examined and documented phenomenon in adults; however, there has not been nearly as much study on violence in adolescent dating relationships, and it is therefore not as well understood. The research has mainly focused on Caucasian youth, and, as of 2013, there are no studies which focus specifically on IPV in adolescent same-sex relationships.

Trauma bonds are emotional bonds that arise from a cyclical pattern of abuse. A trauma bond occurs in an abusive relationship, wherein the victim forms an emotional bond with the perpetrator. The concept was developed by psychologists Donald Dutton and Susan Painter.

The effects of domestic violence on children have a tremendous impact on the well-being and developmental growth of children witnessing it. Children can be exposed to domestic violence in a multitude of ways and goes beyond witnessing or overhearing, although there is disagreement in how it should be measured. Children who are exposed to domestic violence in the home often believe that they are to blame, live in a constant state of fear, and are 15 times more likely to be victims of child abuse. Close observation during an interaction can alert providers to the need for further investigation and intervention, such as dysfunctions in the physical, behavioral, emotional, and social areas of life, and can aid in early intervention and assistance for child victims.

Pregnancy when coupled with domestic violence is a form of intimate partner violence (IPV) where health risks may be amplified. Abuse during pregnancy, whether physical, verbal or emotional, produces many adverse physical and psychological effects for both the mother and fetus. Domestic violence during pregnancy is categorized as abusive behavior towards a pregnant woman, where the pattern of abuse can often change in terms of severity and frequency of violence. Abuse may be a long-standing problem in a relationship that continues after a woman becomes pregnant or it may commence in pregnancy. Although female-to-male partner violence occurs in these settings, the overwhelming form of domestic violence is perpetrated by men against women. Pregnancy provides a unique opportunity for healthcare workers to screen women for domestic violence though a recent review found that the best way in which to do this is unclear. Reducing domestic violence in pregnancy should improve outcomes for mothers and babies though more good quality studies are needed to work out effective ways of screening pregnant women.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Verbal aggression</span> Personality trait or a mainly destructive form of communication

Verbal aggressiveness in communication has been studied to examine the underlying message of how the aggressive communicator gains control over different things that occur, through the usage of verbal aggressiveness. Scholars have identified that individuals who express verbal aggressiveness have the goal of controlling and manipulating others through language. Infante and Wigley defined verbal aggressiveness as "a personality trait that predisposes persons to attack the self-concepts of other people instead of, or in addition to, their positions on topics of communication". Self-concept can be described as a group of values and beliefs that one has. Verbal aggressiveness is thought to be mainly a destructive form of communication, but it can produce positive outcomes. Infante and Wigley described aggressive behavior in interpersonal communication as products of individual's aggressive traits and the way the person perceives the aggressive circumstances that prevents them or something in a situation.

Non Violent Resistance (NVR) is a psychological approach for overcoming destructive, aggressive, controlling and risk-taking behaviour. It was originally developed to address serious behaviour problems in young people, although it is now also being utilised in many different areas, such as adult entitled dependence, anxiety-related problems, problems linked to paediatric illness, internet dependency and misuse, and domestic violence perpetrated by adults.

Deborah M. Capaldi is a developmental psychologist known for her research on at-risk male youth and the intergenerational transmission of substance use, antisocial behavior, intimate partner violence, and child abuse. She is a senior scientist at the Oregon Social Learning Center. Her current projects focus on child exposure to family violence and parenting practices of at-risk parents.

References

  1. 1 2 3 4 5 Cottrell, Barbara (2001). Parent Abuse: The Abuse of Parents by Their Teenage Children (PDF). Health Canada. ISBN   0-662-29529-3. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2012-02-27.
  2. ↑ Osofsky, Joy D. (1999). "The Impact of Violence on Children". The Future of Children. 9 (3): 33–49. doi:10.2307/1602780. ISSN   1054-8289. JSTOR   1602780. PMID   10777999.
  3. ↑ Bobic, N. (2004). "Adolescent Violence Towards Parents" (PDF). Australian Domestic and Family Violence Clearinghouse. Archived from the original (PDF) on 21 March 2012.
  4. ↑ Harbin, H.T.; Madden, D.J. (1979). "Battered Parents: A New Syndrome". American Journal of Psychiatry. 136 (10): 1288–1291. doi:10.1176/ajp.136.10.1288. PMID   484724.
  5. 1 2 3 Robinson, P.W.; Davidson, L.J.; Drebot, M.E. (2004). "Parent abuse on the rise: A historical review" (PDF). American Association of Behavioral Social Science: 58–67. Retrieved 2 June 2012.[ dead link ]
  6. ↑ Paterson, R.; Luntz, H.; Perlesz, A.; Cotton, S. (2002). "Adolescent Violence Towards Parents: Maintaining Family Connections When The Going Gets Tough" (PDF). Australian and New Zealand Journal of Family Therapy. 23 (2): 90–100. doi:10.1002/j.1467-8438.2002.tb00493.x. Archived from the original (PDF) on 19 April 2012. Retrieved 26 May 2012.
  7. 1 2 Agnew, R.; Huguley, S. (1989). "Adolescent violence towards parents". Journal of Marriage and Family. 51 (3): 699–771. doi:10.2307/352169. JSTOR   352169.
  8. 1 2 Evans, D.; Warren-Sohlberg, L. (1989). "A pattern analysis of adolescent abusive behaviour towards parents". Journal of Adolescent Research. 3 (2): 210–216. doi:10.1177/074355488832007. S2CID   145634430.
  9. ↑ "World report on violence and health" (PDF). Summary. World Health Organization (2002). Archived (PDF) from the original on 5 March 2019. Retrieved 13 Jun 2012.
  10. ↑ Straus, M., Gelles, R., & Steinmetz S. (1988). Behind closed doors: violence in the American family. New York: Anchor Books.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)[ page needed ]
  11. ↑ Wilson, J. (1996). "Physical abuse of parents by adolescent children". In Busby, D.M. (ed.). The impact of violence on the family: treatment approaches for therapists and other professionals. Massachusetts: Allyn & Bacon. pp. 101–103.
  12. ↑ Toole-Anstey, Chye; Keevers, Lynne; Townsend, Michelle L (2023). "A Systematic Review of Child to Parent Violence Interventions". Trauma, Violence, & Abuse. 24 (2): 1157–1171. doi:10.1177/15248380211053618. ISSN   1524-8380. PMID   34866496. S2CID   244944508.
  13. ↑ Weinblatt, Uri; Omer, Haim (2008). "Nonviolent Resistance: A Treatment for Parents of Children with Acute Behavior Problems". Journal of Marital and Family Therapy. 34 (1): 75–92. doi:10.1111/j.1752-0606.2008.00054.x. ISSN   0194-472X. PMID   18199182.
  14. 1 2 "Information on NVR for Parents". PartnershipProjects UK. Retrieved 2023-10-26.
  15. ↑ van Gink, Kirsten; van Domburgh, Lieke; Jansen, Lucres; Goddard, Nick; Ottenbros, Ron; van Der Stegen, Ber; Popma, Arne; Vermeiren, Robert (2020-07-02). "The Development and Implementation of Non-Violent Resistance in Child and Adolescent Residential Settings". Residential Treatment for Children & Youth. 37 (3): 176–198. doi: 10.1080/0886571X.2019.1590172 . hdl: 1887/3182549 . ISSN   0886-571X.
  16. ↑ Ibabe, I.; Bentler, P. M. (2016-02-01). "The Contribution of Family Relationships to Child-to-Parent Violence". Journal of Family Violence. 31 (2): 259–269. doi:10.1007/s10896-015-9764-0. ISSN   1573-2851. S2CID   27914992.

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